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Pandemic in the Anthropocene epoch and the status of cities

Yıl 2021, Sayı: 41, 21 - 31, 28.06.2021
https://doi.org/10.33613/antropolojidergisi.810841

Öz

Humans have been living on Earth, which is 4.5 billion years old, for approximately 200,000 years. Since the first day of its existence, humanity has begun to fundamentally change the physical, chemical and biological systems that depend on all the organisms of the planet, especially in the last 60 years, these effects have manifested themselves at an unprecedented rate and scale, especially in cities. The past pandemics and the COVID-19 pandemic that occurred in 2019 were not accidentally experienced. It is important to understand that the pandemic is a man-made; because we created this problem because of the species we are in and the planet (cities) we created. Past and present pandemics are just one aspect of the man-made planetary crisis known as the Anthropocene; climate change, biodiversity loss and other problems are all interdependent. One of the cornerstones of these problems are the cities that are a part of the Anthropocene and the effects of these problems are mostly concentrated in cities. Like the pandemic, which is a global problem of 2020-2021... In this study, the past and future of pandemics, which are a problem of the Anthropocene epoch, in the city, the disaster areas that caused the start of the Anthropocene epoch. The connection with the cities hosting the main problems (humans) is discussed in the context of a theoretical discussion. Suggestions regarding the solution methods to be brought by planning in urban areas dealing with the COVID-19 epidemic, which is increasing due to urban people, are presented in the study.

Kaynakça

  • Akbari, H., Menon, S., ve Rosenfeld, A. (2009). Global cooling: increasing world-wide urban albedos to offset CO2. Climatic Change, (94), 275–286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-008-9515-9
  • Aykanat, F. (2017). Antroposen Çağının öykü anlatıcıları: sanat ve edebiyat. Şarki Edebiyat ve Sanat Dergisi, 1(2), 1-17.
  • Bogoch, I., Watts, A., Thomas-Bachli, A., Huber, C., Kraemer, M.U.G., ve Khan, K. (2020). Potential for global spread of a novel coronavirus from China. Journal of Travel Medicine, 27(2), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa011
  • Certini, G., ve Scalenghe, R. (2011). Anthropogenic soils and the golden spikes for the Anthropocene. The Holocene, 21(8), 1269–1274. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683611408454
  • Chakrabarty, D. (2009). The climate of history: four theses. Critical Inquiry, 35(2), 197–222. https://doi.org/10.1086/596640
  • Cicolella, A. (2013). Toxique planète: Le scandale invisible des maladies chroniques. Éditions du Seuil.
  • Crist, E. (2013). On the poverty of our nomenclature. Environmental Humanities, 3(1), 129-147. https://doi.org/10.1215/22011919-3611266
  • Crutzen, P. J. (2002). Geology of mankind. Nature, (415), 23. https://doi.org/10.1038/415023a
  • Crutzen, P. J., ve Steffen, W. (2003). How long have we been in the Anthropocene Era? An editorial comment. Climatic Change, 61(3), 251-257. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CLIM.0000004708.74871.62
  • Daszak, P., Cunningham, A., ve Hyatt, A. (2001). Anthropogenic environmental change and the emergence of infectious diseases in wildlife. Acta Tropica, 78(2), 103–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-706X(00)00179-0
  • Demos, T. J. (2017). Aganist the Anthropocene: visial culture and environment today. Sternberg Press.
  • Ellis, E., Maslin, M., Boivin, N., ve Bauer, A. (2016). Involve social scientists in defining the Anthropocene. Nature, (540), 192-193. https://doi.org/10.1038/540192a
  • Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline & Punish: the birth of the prison. Vintage Books.
  • Gebreyes, W. A., Dupouy-Camet, J., Newport, M. J., Oliveira, C. J., Schlesinger, L. S., Saif, Y. M., Kariuki, S., Saif, L. J., Saville, W., Wittum, T., Hoet, A., Quessy, S., Kazwala, R., Tekola, B., Shyrock, T., Bisesi, M., Patchanee, P., Boonmar, S., ve King. L. J. (2014). The global one health paradigm: challenges and opportunities for tackling infectious diseases at the human, animal, and environment interface in low-resource settings. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 8(11), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003257
  • Goldschmidt, A. J. W., ve Hilbert, J. (2009). Health economy in Germany - economical field of the future (Gesundheitswirtschaft in Deutschland - Die Zukunftsbranche). Wikom Publishing House.
  • Goldschmidt, J. W. (2004). Kondratiev waves associated with gains in ıt and health with phase shift and overlap. https://www.uni-trier.de/index.php?id=28954 Hamilton, C. (2014). Can humans survive the Anthropocene?. https://clivehamilton.com/can-humans-survive-the-anthropocene/
  • Hassell, J. M., Begon, M., Ward, M.J., Fevre, E.M. (2017). Urbanization and disease emergence: dynamics at the wildlife-livestock-human ınterface. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 32(1), 55-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2016.09.012
  • IPBES (2019). Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. . S. Díaz, J. Settele, E. S. Brondízio E.S., H. T. Ngo, M. Guèze, J. Agard, A. Arneth, P. Balvanera, K. A. Brauman, S. H. M. Butchart, K. M. A. Chan, L. A. Garibaldi, K. Ichii, J. Liu, S. M. Subramanian, G. F. Midgley, P. Miloslavich, Z. Molnár, D. Obura, A. Pfaff, S. Polasky, A. Purvis, J. Razzaque, B. Reyers, R. Roy Chowdhury, Y. J. Shin, I. J. Visseren-Hamakers, K. J. Willis, ve C. N. Zayas (ed.). IPBES secretariat. Bonn. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3553579
  • Keesing, F., Belden, L. K., Daszak, P., Dobson, A., Harvell, C. D., Holt, R. D., Hudson, P., Jolles, A., Jones, K. E., Mitchell, C. E., Myers, S. S., Bogich, T., ve Ostfeld, R. S. (2010). Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases. Nature, (468), 647–652. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09575
  • Keil, R., Connolly, C., ve Ali, S. H. (2020). Outbreaks like coronavirus start in and spread from the edges of cities. the conversation. https://theconversation.com/outbreaks-like-coronavirus-start-in-and-spread-from-the-edges-of-cities-130666
  • Last, J. M. (2001). A dictionary of epidemiology (4th ed). Oxford University Press.
  • Lederberg, J., Shope, R. E., Oaks, S. C. (1992). Emerging infections: microbial threats to health in the United States. National Academy Press.
  • Lee, V. J., Ho, M., Kai, C.W., Aguilera, X., Heymann, D., ve Wilder-Smith, A. (2020). Epidemic preparedness in urban settings: new challenges and opportunities. The Lancet Infect Diseases, 20(5), 527–529. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30249-8
  • Lepan, N. (2021). Visualizing the history of pandemics. https://www.visualcapitalist.com/history-of-pandemics-deadliest/ (En son 8 Mart 2021’de erişilmiştir)
  • Li, Q., Guan, X., Wu, P., Wang, X., Zhou, L., Tong, Y., Ren, R., Leung, K. S. M., Lau, E. H. Y., Wong, J. Y., Xing, X., Xiang, N., Wu, Y., Li, C., Chen, Q., Li, D., Liu, T., Zhano, J., Liu, M., Tu, W., ... Feng, Z. (2020). Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-ınfected pneumonia. The New England Journal of Medicine, (382), 1199–1207. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001316
  • Loh, E., Zambrana-Torrelio, C., Olival K.J., Bogich, T.L., Johnson, C.K., Mazet, J. A. K., Karesh, W., ve Daszak, P. (2015). Targeting transmission pathways for emerging zoonotic disease surveillance and control. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 15(7), 432–43. https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2013.1563
  • Magnus-Johnston, J. (2020). Outbreaks in the Anthropocene: growth ain’t the cure. https://www.resilience.org/stories/2020-03-12/
  • McFarlane, R. A., Sleigh, A. C., ve McMichael, A. J. (2013). Land-use change and emerging infectious disease on an island continent. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(7), 2699–2719. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10072699
  • McMichael, A. J. (2001). Human culture, ecological change, and infectious disease. Ecosystem Health, 7(2), 107-115. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-0992.2001.007002107.x
  • McMichael, A. J. (2004). Environmental and social influences on emerging infectious diseases: past, present and future. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 359(1447), 1049–1058. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.1480
  • Nefiodow, L.A. (2014). Health: The economic growth engine of the 21st century. ICU Management & Practice, 14(4), 1-6.
  • Nefiodow, L.A., Nefiodow, S. (2014). The sixth kondratieff, a new long wave in the global economy. Createspace Independent Pub.
  • Hine, R. (Ed.) (2019). A dictionary of biology (8th ed.). Oxford University Press.
  • Parnell, S. (2016). Defining a global urban development agenda. World Development, (78), 529–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.10.028
  • Peters, K. E. (2012). The whole story of climate: what science reveals about the nature of endless change. Prometheus Books.
  • Pike, J., Bogich, T., Elwood, S., Finnoff, D. C., ve Daszak, P. (2014). Economic optimization of a global strategy to address the pandemic threat. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(52), 18519–18523. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1412661112
  • Quammen, D. (4 Ekim 2012). The next pandemic: Why it will come from wildlife. Yale Environment 360. https://e360.yale.edu/features/quammen_the_next_pandemic_will_come_from_wildlife
  • Rafferty, J. P. (2020). Anthropocene Epoch. https://www.britannica.com/science/Anthropocene-Epoch
  • Rull, V. (2017). The “Anthropocene”: Neglects, misconceptions, and possible futures. EMBO Reports, 18(7), 1056–1060. https://doi.org/10.15252/embr.201744231
  • Seto, K.C., Sánchez-Rodríguez, R., ve Fragkias, M. (2010). The new geography of contemporary urbanization and the environment. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, (35), 167–194. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-100809-125336
  • Steffen, W., Crutzen, P. J., ve Mcneill, J. R. (2007). The Anthropocene: are humans now overwhelming the great forces of Nature? AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 36(8), 614–621. https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36[614:TAAHNO]2.0.CO;2
  • The Economist (2011). Welcome to the Anthropocene. https://www.economist.com/leaders/2011/05/26/welcome-to-the-anthropocene
  • Trachtenberg, Z. (6 Eylül 2017). The urban Anthropocene. Inhabiting the Anthropocene. https://inhabitingtheanthropocene.com/2017/09/06/the-urban-anthropocene/
  • WEF (World Economic Forum) (2019). Outbreak readiness and business impact: Protecting lives and livelihoods across the global economy. World Economic Forum. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF%20HGHI_Outbreak_Readiness_Business_Impact.pdf
  • Whitmee, S., Haines, A., Beyrer, C., Boltz, F., Capon, A. G., De Souza Dias, B. F., … (2015). Safeguarding human health in the Anthropocene epoch: report of The Rockefeller Foundation–Lancet Commission on planetary health. The Lancet, 386(10007), 1973–2028. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60901-1
  • WWF (2020). The loss of nature and rise of pandemics: Protecting human and planetary health. WWF Italy. https://wwfint.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/the_loss_of_nature_and_rise_of_pandemics___protecting_human_and_planetary_health.pdf
  • Zalasiewicz, J., Waters, C. N., Summerhayes, C. P., Wolfe, A. P., Barnosky, A. D., Cearreta, A., Crutzen, P., Ellis, E., Fairchild, I. J., Gałuszka, A., Haff, P., Hajdas, I., Head, M. J., Ivar do Sul, J. A., Jeandel, C., Leinfelder, R., McNeil, J. R., Neal, C., Odada, E., Oreskes, N., ... Williams, M. (2017). The working group on the Anthropocene: summary of evidence and interim recommendations). Anthropocene, (19), 55–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2017.09.001
  • Zalasiewicz, J., Williams, M., Smith, A., Barry, T. L., Coe, A. L., Bown, P. R., Brenchley, P., Cantrill, D., Gale, A., Gibbard, P., Gregory, F. J., Hounslow, M. W., Kerr, A. C., Pearson, P., Knowx, R., Powell, J., Waters, C., Marshall, J., Oates, M., Rawson, P., ve Stone, P. (2008). Are we now living in the Anthropocene? GSA Today, 18(2), 4–8. http://doi.org/10.1130/GSAT01802A.1

Antroposen Çağı’nda pandemi ve kentlerin durumu

Yıl 2021, Sayı: 41, 21 - 31, 28.06.2021
https://doi.org/10.33613/antropolojidergisi.810841

Öz

İnsanlar, 4,5 milyar yaşında olan Dünya üzerinde yaklaşık 200.000 yıldır yaşamaktadır. İnsanlık ilk günden beri gezegenin tüm organizmalarının bağlı olduğu fiziksel, kimyasal ve biyolojik sistemleri temelden değiştirmeye başlamış, özellikle son 60 yılda, bu etkiler eşi görülmemiş bir oranda ve ölçekte, özellikle kentlerde kendini göstermiştir. Geçmişteki salgınlar ve 2019 yılında ortaya çıkan COVID-19 salgını tesadüfen yaşanmamıştır. Salgının bir insan yaratımı olduğunu anlamak önemlidir; çünkü bu problemi, bulunduğumuz tür ve yarattığımız gezegen (kentler) yüzünden ortaya çıkardık. Geçmiş ve mevcut pandemiler, Antroposen olarak bilinen insan yapımı gezegen krizinin sadece bir yönüdür; iklim değişikliği, biyolojik çeşitlilik kaybı ve diğer sorunların hepsi birbirine bağlıdır. Bu sorunların temel taşlarından biri Antroposen’in bir parçası olan kentlerdir ve bu sorunların etkileri en çok kentlerde yoğunlaşmaktadır. 2020-2021 yıllarının küresel sorunu olan pandemi gibi... Bu çalışmada Antroposen Çağı’nın bir sorunu olan pandemilerin kentteki geçmişi-geleceği, Antroposen Çağı’nın başlamasına neden olan felaket mekânları olan, asıl sorunları (insanlar) içinde barındıran kentler ile bağlantısı kuramsal bir tartışma bazında ele alınmıştır. Kentli insanlar yüzünden giderek artan COVID-19 salgını üzerinden kentsel alanlarda planlamayla getirilecek çözüm yöntemlerine ilişkin öneriler çalışmada sunulmuştur.

Kaynakça

  • Akbari, H., Menon, S., ve Rosenfeld, A. (2009). Global cooling: increasing world-wide urban albedos to offset CO2. Climatic Change, (94), 275–286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-008-9515-9
  • Aykanat, F. (2017). Antroposen Çağının öykü anlatıcıları: sanat ve edebiyat. Şarki Edebiyat ve Sanat Dergisi, 1(2), 1-17.
  • Bogoch, I., Watts, A., Thomas-Bachli, A., Huber, C., Kraemer, M.U.G., ve Khan, K. (2020). Potential for global spread of a novel coronavirus from China. Journal of Travel Medicine, 27(2), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa011
  • Certini, G., ve Scalenghe, R. (2011). Anthropogenic soils and the golden spikes for the Anthropocene. The Holocene, 21(8), 1269–1274. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683611408454
  • Chakrabarty, D. (2009). The climate of history: four theses. Critical Inquiry, 35(2), 197–222. https://doi.org/10.1086/596640
  • Cicolella, A. (2013). Toxique planète: Le scandale invisible des maladies chroniques. Éditions du Seuil.
  • Crist, E. (2013). On the poverty of our nomenclature. Environmental Humanities, 3(1), 129-147. https://doi.org/10.1215/22011919-3611266
  • Crutzen, P. J. (2002). Geology of mankind. Nature, (415), 23. https://doi.org/10.1038/415023a
  • Crutzen, P. J., ve Steffen, W. (2003). How long have we been in the Anthropocene Era? An editorial comment. Climatic Change, 61(3), 251-257. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CLIM.0000004708.74871.62
  • Daszak, P., Cunningham, A., ve Hyatt, A. (2001). Anthropogenic environmental change and the emergence of infectious diseases in wildlife. Acta Tropica, 78(2), 103–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-706X(00)00179-0
  • Demos, T. J. (2017). Aganist the Anthropocene: visial culture and environment today. Sternberg Press.
  • Ellis, E., Maslin, M., Boivin, N., ve Bauer, A. (2016). Involve social scientists in defining the Anthropocene. Nature, (540), 192-193. https://doi.org/10.1038/540192a
  • Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline & Punish: the birth of the prison. Vintage Books.
  • Gebreyes, W. A., Dupouy-Camet, J., Newport, M. J., Oliveira, C. J., Schlesinger, L. S., Saif, Y. M., Kariuki, S., Saif, L. J., Saville, W., Wittum, T., Hoet, A., Quessy, S., Kazwala, R., Tekola, B., Shyrock, T., Bisesi, M., Patchanee, P., Boonmar, S., ve King. L. J. (2014). The global one health paradigm: challenges and opportunities for tackling infectious diseases at the human, animal, and environment interface in low-resource settings. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 8(11), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003257
  • Goldschmidt, A. J. W., ve Hilbert, J. (2009). Health economy in Germany - economical field of the future (Gesundheitswirtschaft in Deutschland - Die Zukunftsbranche). Wikom Publishing House.
  • Goldschmidt, J. W. (2004). Kondratiev waves associated with gains in ıt and health with phase shift and overlap. https://www.uni-trier.de/index.php?id=28954 Hamilton, C. (2014). Can humans survive the Anthropocene?. https://clivehamilton.com/can-humans-survive-the-anthropocene/
  • Hassell, J. M., Begon, M., Ward, M.J., Fevre, E.M. (2017). Urbanization and disease emergence: dynamics at the wildlife-livestock-human ınterface. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 32(1), 55-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2016.09.012
  • IPBES (2019). Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. . S. Díaz, J. Settele, E. S. Brondízio E.S., H. T. Ngo, M. Guèze, J. Agard, A. Arneth, P. Balvanera, K. A. Brauman, S. H. M. Butchart, K. M. A. Chan, L. A. Garibaldi, K. Ichii, J. Liu, S. M. Subramanian, G. F. Midgley, P. Miloslavich, Z. Molnár, D. Obura, A. Pfaff, S. Polasky, A. Purvis, J. Razzaque, B. Reyers, R. Roy Chowdhury, Y. J. Shin, I. J. Visseren-Hamakers, K. J. Willis, ve C. N. Zayas (ed.). IPBES secretariat. Bonn. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3553579
  • Keesing, F., Belden, L. K., Daszak, P., Dobson, A., Harvell, C. D., Holt, R. D., Hudson, P., Jolles, A., Jones, K. E., Mitchell, C. E., Myers, S. S., Bogich, T., ve Ostfeld, R. S. (2010). Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases. Nature, (468), 647–652. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09575
  • Keil, R., Connolly, C., ve Ali, S. H. (2020). Outbreaks like coronavirus start in and spread from the edges of cities. the conversation. https://theconversation.com/outbreaks-like-coronavirus-start-in-and-spread-from-the-edges-of-cities-130666
  • Last, J. M. (2001). A dictionary of epidemiology (4th ed). Oxford University Press.
  • Lederberg, J., Shope, R. E., Oaks, S. C. (1992). Emerging infections: microbial threats to health in the United States. National Academy Press.
  • Lee, V. J., Ho, M., Kai, C.W., Aguilera, X., Heymann, D., ve Wilder-Smith, A. (2020). Epidemic preparedness in urban settings: new challenges and opportunities. The Lancet Infect Diseases, 20(5), 527–529. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30249-8
  • Lepan, N. (2021). Visualizing the history of pandemics. https://www.visualcapitalist.com/history-of-pandemics-deadliest/ (En son 8 Mart 2021’de erişilmiştir)
  • Li, Q., Guan, X., Wu, P., Wang, X., Zhou, L., Tong, Y., Ren, R., Leung, K. S. M., Lau, E. H. Y., Wong, J. Y., Xing, X., Xiang, N., Wu, Y., Li, C., Chen, Q., Li, D., Liu, T., Zhano, J., Liu, M., Tu, W., ... Feng, Z. (2020). Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-ınfected pneumonia. The New England Journal of Medicine, (382), 1199–1207. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001316
  • Loh, E., Zambrana-Torrelio, C., Olival K.J., Bogich, T.L., Johnson, C.K., Mazet, J. A. K., Karesh, W., ve Daszak, P. (2015). Targeting transmission pathways for emerging zoonotic disease surveillance and control. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 15(7), 432–43. https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2013.1563
  • Magnus-Johnston, J. (2020). Outbreaks in the Anthropocene: growth ain’t the cure. https://www.resilience.org/stories/2020-03-12/
  • McFarlane, R. A., Sleigh, A. C., ve McMichael, A. J. (2013). Land-use change and emerging infectious disease on an island continent. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(7), 2699–2719. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10072699
  • McMichael, A. J. (2001). Human culture, ecological change, and infectious disease. Ecosystem Health, 7(2), 107-115. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-0992.2001.007002107.x
  • McMichael, A. J. (2004). Environmental and social influences on emerging infectious diseases: past, present and future. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 359(1447), 1049–1058. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.1480
  • Nefiodow, L.A. (2014). Health: The economic growth engine of the 21st century. ICU Management & Practice, 14(4), 1-6.
  • Nefiodow, L.A., Nefiodow, S. (2014). The sixth kondratieff, a new long wave in the global economy. Createspace Independent Pub.
  • Hine, R. (Ed.) (2019). A dictionary of biology (8th ed.). Oxford University Press.
  • Parnell, S. (2016). Defining a global urban development agenda. World Development, (78), 529–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.10.028
  • Peters, K. E. (2012). The whole story of climate: what science reveals about the nature of endless change. Prometheus Books.
  • Pike, J., Bogich, T., Elwood, S., Finnoff, D. C., ve Daszak, P. (2014). Economic optimization of a global strategy to address the pandemic threat. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(52), 18519–18523. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1412661112
  • Quammen, D. (4 Ekim 2012). The next pandemic: Why it will come from wildlife. Yale Environment 360. https://e360.yale.edu/features/quammen_the_next_pandemic_will_come_from_wildlife
  • Rafferty, J. P. (2020). Anthropocene Epoch. https://www.britannica.com/science/Anthropocene-Epoch
  • Rull, V. (2017). The “Anthropocene”: Neglects, misconceptions, and possible futures. EMBO Reports, 18(7), 1056–1060. https://doi.org/10.15252/embr.201744231
  • Seto, K.C., Sánchez-Rodríguez, R., ve Fragkias, M. (2010). The new geography of contemporary urbanization and the environment. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, (35), 167–194. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-100809-125336
  • Steffen, W., Crutzen, P. J., ve Mcneill, J. R. (2007). The Anthropocene: are humans now overwhelming the great forces of Nature? AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 36(8), 614–621. https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36[614:TAAHNO]2.0.CO;2
  • The Economist (2011). Welcome to the Anthropocene. https://www.economist.com/leaders/2011/05/26/welcome-to-the-anthropocene
  • Trachtenberg, Z. (6 Eylül 2017). The urban Anthropocene. Inhabiting the Anthropocene. https://inhabitingtheanthropocene.com/2017/09/06/the-urban-anthropocene/
  • WEF (World Economic Forum) (2019). Outbreak readiness and business impact: Protecting lives and livelihoods across the global economy. World Economic Forum. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF%20HGHI_Outbreak_Readiness_Business_Impact.pdf
  • Whitmee, S., Haines, A., Beyrer, C., Boltz, F., Capon, A. G., De Souza Dias, B. F., … (2015). Safeguarding human health in the Anthropocene epoch: report of The Rockefeller Foundation–Lancet Commission on planetary health. The Lancet, 386(10007), 1973–2028. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60901-1
  • WWF (2020). The loss of nature and rise of pandemics: Protecting human and planetary health. WWF Italy. https://wwfint.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/the_loss_of_nature_and_rise_of_pandemics___protecting_human_and_planetary_health.pdf
  • Zalasiewicz, J., Waters, C. N., Summerhayes, C. P., Wolfe, A. P., Barnosky, A. D., Cearreta, A., Crutzen, P., Ellis, E., Fairchild, I. J., Gałuszka, A., Haff, P., Hajdas, I., Head, M. J., Ivar do Sul, J. A., Jeandel, C., Leinfelder, R., McNeil, J. R., Neal, C., Odada, E., Oreskes, N., ... Williams, M. (2017). The working group on the Anthropocene: summary of evidence and interim recommendations). Anthropocene, (19), 55–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2017.09.001
  • Zalasiewicz, J., Williams, M., Smith, A., Barry, T. L., Coe, A. L., Bown, P. R., Brenchley, P., Cantrill, D., Gale, A., Gibbard, P., Gregory, F. J., Hounslow, M. W., Kerr, A. C., Pearson, P., Knowx, R., Powell, J., Waters, C., Marshall, J., Oates, M., Rawson, P., ve Stone, P. (2008). Are we now living in the Anthropocene? GSA Today, 18(2), 4–8. http://doi.org/10.1130/GSAT01802A.1
Toplam 48 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Antropoloji
Bölüm Değerlendirme (Derleme) Makaleleri
Yazarlar

Erkan Polat 0000-0001-8103-8753

Sümeyye Kahraman 0000-0003-1827-4520

Yayımlanma Tarihi 28 Haziran 2021
Gönderilme Tarihi 14 Ekim 2020
Kabul Tarihi 8 Mart 2021
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2021 Sayı: 41

Kaynak Göster

APA Polat, E., & Kahraman, S. (2021). Antroposen Çağı’nda pandemi ve kentlerin durumu. Antropoloji(41), 21-31. https://doi.org/10.33613/antropolojidergisi.810841

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Antropoloji’de yayımlanan makaleler ve diğer yazıların tümünün yayın hakkı Creative Commons Atıf-Gayri Ticari 4.0 Uluslararası Lisansı (CC BY-NC 4.0) altında lisanslanmıştır. Yani yayımlanan makale ve diğer muhtelif yazılar, başka yayınlarda ancak uygun referans gösterilerek, lisansa bağlantı sağlanarak, değişiklik yapıldıysa belirtilerek ve ticarî amaç gütmeyerek kullanılabilirler. Kısaca yazar(lar) veya okuyucu(lar) herhangi bir maddî çıkar gözetmeksizin, Antropoloji’deki yayınları basılı ve/veya elektronik olarak çoğaltmakta ve/veya yaymakta özgürdürler. Bu durum yine de lisans sahibi olarak Antropoloji’nin sizi ve çalışmanızı onaylayacağı anlamına gelmek zorunda değildir.
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