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The use of individual difference measures to affect the assignment of Army trainees to media options
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Content
THE USE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE MEASURES
TO AFFECT THE ASSIGNMENT OF ARMY
TRAINEES TO MEDIA OPTIONS
by
Stuart Roy Furgang
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
May 1980
UMI Number: DP24697
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is d ep en d en t upon the quality of the copy subm itted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete m anuscript
and there are m issing p ag es, th e se will be noted. Also, if m aterial had to be rem oved,
a note will indicate the deletion.
UMI D P24697
Published by P roQ uest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
Microform Edition © P roQ uest LLC.
All rights reserved. This work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United S ta te s C ode
P roQ uest LLC.
789 E ast Eisenhow er Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 - 1346
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA
TH E G R ADUATE S C H O O L
U N IV ER SITY PA R K
L O S A N G ELE S, C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
STUART ROY FURGANG
under the direction of h%3.... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
I hairman
BA uc
’SO
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer wishes to express his
sincere appreciation to William W. Jordan
and Arthur S. Monroe, Hughes Aircraft
Company, Los Angeles, for their continuous
support; to Dr. D. W. Shaw, III and James
T. Johnson for providing subjects and
assistance in conducting the study; to
Dr. Jeri Benson, Department of Educational
Psychology, University of Southern California,
for her assistance with the experimental
design; to his dissertation committee for
their cooperation; and most importantly, to
his wife Nancie, for being both mother and
father to Stacy during these past six months.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Page
♦ ♦
XI
LIST OF TABLES v
LIST OF FIGURES vi
Chapter
INTRODUCTION 1
II.
III.
IV.
Importance of the Problem
Statement of the Problem
Treatments
Definitions of Terms
Assumptions
Delimitations and Limitations
Summary and Overview of Remaining
Chapters
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................. 14
Media Selection
Aptitude-Treatment Interaction
The Experimental Variables
Summary
Tentative Conclusions
METHODOLOGY............................... 67
Statement of the Hypotheses
Experimental Design
Experimental Variables
Dependent Variables
The Sample Population
Treatment Groups
Learning Task
Measurement Instruments
Field Procedures
Statistical Analyses
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................... 92
Analysis of the Data
Presentation of the Data Relevant to
the Hypotheses
iii
Chapter Page
Discussion of Hypotheses
Presentation of Supplemental Findings
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 111
Summary
Conclusions
Recommendations
LIST OF REFERENCES............................ 122
APPENDICES
A. TASKS ADDRESSED BY THE TRAINING IN THIS
STUDY ............. 137
B. QUESTIONNAIRE # 1 ................. 139
C. QUESTIONNAIRE # 2 A .............. 141
D. QUESTIONNAIRE # 2 B .............. 143
E. SELF-EVALUATION (ANXIETY) QUESTIONNAIRE 145
F. PRETEST SAMPLE................... 147
G. WRITTEN POSTTEST SAMPLE ............ 149
H. HANDS-ON TEST SAMPLE............ 151
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Demographic Profile of the Sample
According to Treatment ............. 74
2. Aptitude/Ability Profile of the Sample
According to Treatment ............... 76
3. Group Means (X), Standard Deviations (S),
Hypotheses Addressed (H), and Values of
Student’s t-Tests (t) Used to Compare
Subjects' Achievement When Grouped by
Various Individual Difference Measures 95
4. Group Means (X), Standard Deviations (S),
Group Size (n), Hypotheses Addressed
(H), and Values of Student's t-Tests
(t) Used to Compare Subjects'
Achievement When Grouped by Treatments 97
5. Correlation Coefficients Matrix ......... 102
6. Stepwise Regression Results for Written
Post test Achievement . ............. 104
7* Stepwise Regression Results for Hands-On
Test Achievement..................... 105
8* Group Means (X), Standard Deviations (S),
and Values of Student's t-Tests (t)
Used to Compare Subjects' Achievement
When Grouped by Treatment............. 106
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Field Procedures ......................... 90
2. Results of Questionnaire # 2 A ........... 107
3. Results of Questionnaire # 2 B ........... 108
vi
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The U.S. Array, along with the other branches of
the military, has adopted the Interservice Procedures
for Instructional Systems Development (TRADOC PAM
350-30) as the guiding document of instructional design
(19). Contained as a five volume series, the M350-30M
model, as it is called, details the procedures for the
design, selection, and validation of training materials
used by the military. The model, which considers task,
learner, and environmental variables, attempts to
synthesize an effective instructional delivery system.
According to Braby et al.:
The structure of the delivery system determines
in a major way how the information pertinent to
training is to be organized and presented to the
student. Choosing the delivery system with an
optimum mix of instructional media is difficult
to accomplish in an intuitive, informal manner.
A systematic approach to media and instructional
delivery system selection is required which is
formalized in the training system design process.
(16:7)
The Training Analysis and Evaluation Group of
the U.S. Navy surveyed the available formal media
selection techniques for possible use in Navy training
and critically tested the ten most promising techniques
(14). Of these ten techniques, none was found adequate
for use in assisting instructional designers to select
effective instructional media. Spangenberg et al. , in
a parallel investigation, reported that ”none of the
several methods-media selection procedures already in
existence satisfies Army requirements” (114:7).
Several sophisticated models of media selection
have been proposed since the Braby (14) and Spangenberg
et al. (114) reviews (16, 24, 61). However, none has
been widely adopted as a practical and effective aid
to media selection.
The ineffectiveness of media selection models
may be due, in part, to their attempt to identify a
single medium or media mix applicable to a group of
learners. Since even small groups of learners are
probably heterogeneous with respect to their learning
styles, this approach may be self-defeating. Addi
tionally, group instruction is being de-emphasized as
the Army turns to individualized field exportable
instruction as a way of providing greater student/teacher
ratios and reducing overall training time (10).
This "new" direction to Army training will
require innovative methods/media selection schemes,
one of which was suggested by Bennik et al.:
Given valid and reliable individual difference
indices of cognitive-perceptual style available
from soldiers1 records and simple instruments
easily administered as part of the training
2
management plan, then a soldier or group of
soldiers could be assigned a mix of alternatives
appropriate to the profile shown. (10:1-2)
Others have also suggested the prescriptive assignment
of soldiers to appropriate instructional treatments
matched to their respective traits (39, 93). It has
been suggested that the military's technical documenta
tion should be designed with individual user differences
in mind (91)•
The methodology of aptitude-treatment interaction
(ATI) has been used as an analytic technique for identi
fying adaptive modes of instruction (33). The concept,
however, is not new. Weber (124) pointed out that the
1925 yearbook of the National Society for the Study of
Education was entitled Adapting the Schools to Indi
vidual Differences. Berliner and Cahen (11) provided
a concise history of the efforts to match individual
learners with preferred modes of information processing.
These authors were able to date research in this area
back to the late nineteenth century, although they
attributed the more recent direction in ATI to
Cronbach's 1957 address to the American Psychological
Association which called for educational researchers
to design instructional treatments matched to individual
differences.
It has been suggested that the ATI approach be
used to relate media and soldier characteristics,
3
especially as they apply to the Army's popular Training
Extension Course (TEC) program (94). The TEC program
has been in existence since 1972 and serves to develop
cost-effective instructional lessons designed to support
specific behavioral objectives. They are called exten
sion courses because they can be exported (i.e.,
extended) for field use. The primary media used for
the TEC program are audiovisual, programed text, and
audio-only, with the choice being somewhat arbitrary
when no clear educational advantage dictates a specific
selection.
A second active individualized field exportable
program uses the Army's correspondence courses. These
are programed text lessons developed by the individual
service schools and disseminated by the Army Institute
for Professional Development. Soldiers who elect to
take correspondence courses in their "off-hours" are
awarded education credits toward career advancement
upon the successful completion of the programs. TEC,
however, is more commonly used to support duty assigned
instruction. Except for their administrative differ
ences, TEC programed texts and correspondence courses
are identical.
The effectiveness of these instructional options
has been investigated. In a study of 500 soldiers
4
from Army and National Guard units, Knerr et al, (69)
compared the effectiveness of audiovisual (AV) TEC
with conventional lecture. Subjects trained with TEC
were reported superior on performance tests emphasizing
reasoning and information, while TEC and lecture were
equally effective in preparing subjects for tests of
psychomotor skill.
In a similar study comparing AV TEC with
lecture, Holmgren et al. (62) presented instruction
on five different tasks to 1,200 active and National
Guard soldiers. On immediate posttests and tests of
retention administered about nine weeks later, the
TEC trained subjects scored significantly higher
than the lecture group.
While these findings suggest that AV TEC is more
effective than lecture for some tasks, it should be
remembered that the lecture mode is being phased out.
At least one study has addressed the current media
options of AV TEC and programed text. Roberts and
Hearold (94) found no significant differences between
posttest performance on lessons using the AV TEC and
programed text modes. These authors did find, however,
a trend approaching significance which indicated that
low ability soldiers (i.e., skill level one) did better
with printed text, while higher ability soldiers (i.e.,
5
skill levels three and four) did better with audiovisual
instruction.
Importance of the Problem
The size and scope of military training are
significant by any standard. In the Army alone more
than 250,000 people enter each year to be trained to
perform over 2,700 different jobs (19). Training
addresses everything from gross motor heavy equipment
tasks, to fine motor calibration tasks, to strategy
and trouble-shooting tasks more cognitive in emphasis.
This training requirement is made increasingly
difficult by the fact that the average aptitude of
enlistees is declining. Between 1972 and 1977 the
percentage of category III-B recruits (i.e., those
between the thirtieth and fiftieth percentile on
military aptitude scales) had increased from 26 to 45
percent (125). Additionally, minimal literacy levels
have been identified for large percentages of all the
enlisted forces (45). In one study of Navy enlisted
men, and the basic technical documentation they were
required to use, it was found that 50 percent of the
enlistees had reading levels below that at which the
documentation was written (45).
The military spends over 50 percent of the
defense budget on manpower. If the effectiveness
6
of military training can be increased even a modest
amount, it is likely to have a significant overall
effect. Similarly, the spending of additional funds
for elaborate presentation systems and programs which
fail to provide increased learning results in the
misappropriation of scarce funds which could best be
applied elsewhere.
The problem which this study examined is not
exclusive to the military training environment.
Civilian institutions also are faced with media
selection and student assignment decisions. Leonard
noted that "there has been a great deal of insight
useful to educators generated by military and industrial
training studiesM (72:509).
Statement of the Problem
The Roberts and Hearold (94) study suggested
that ability might serve as the aptitude in an ATI
approach to differentially assign Army trainees to
AV TEC and programed text modes. The specific problem
which this study addressed was to determine if other
variables, either those on file in a soldier's per
sonnel records or ones that could be acquired, could
serve to affect such an assignment. Thus, the present
study sought to expand on the Roberts and Hearold study
7
by considering additional predictor variables.
Specifically, the purpose of this study was to
determine:
1. If a negative correlation exists between
trait anxiety and achievement.
2. If students with high trait anxiety learn
better with a programed text mode than
with an audiovisual mode.
3. If a positive correlation exists between
ability and achievement.
4. If allowing students to select their own
media increases achievement.
5. If a positive correlation exists between
spatial perception and achievement.
6. If low spatially perceptive students learn
better with a programed text mode than with
an audiovisual mode.
7. If a positive correlation exists between
general aptitude and achievement.
8. If students with low general aptitude learn
better with an audiovisual mode than with
a programed text mode.
Treatments
The present study offered training to thirty-
eight subjects from an Army air defense battery on
8
the daily maintenance checks and services of the
Chaparral missile launcher system. The subjects had
had no prior training on the Chaparral. The subjects
were randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups:
one received a series of AV TEC presentations, while
the other received a programed text correspondence
course (CC) on the same material. Both presentations
had been derived from a common set of visuals and text,
although the AV treatment incorporated sound, color,
and motion sequences while the CC treatment did not.
Data were collected on a variety of aptitude and ability
measures, as well as on each subject's achievement as
determined from a written posttest and a hands-on
performance test.
Definitions of Terms
The following terms were used in this study:
Ability. An individual's developed proficiency
at performing a task.
Anxiety. As used here, synonymous with trait
anxiety.
Aptitude. An individual's potential for learn
ing to perform a task.
Aptitude-treatment interaction. A methodology
of identifying specific treatments which interact with
9
specific learner variables for the purpose of suggesting
adaptive instructional strategies.
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery.
The military's selection and classification battery
required of all enlistees.
Chaparral. A short-range air defense missile
weapon system.
Delivery system. A total process of instruc
tional presentation and evaluation. Includes, in
part, instructional methods and media.
Environmental variables. The physical con
straints imposed by the surroundings in which media
are to be used (e.g., power and size constraints).
Field exportable. Capable of being used at a
duty assignment as opposed to a service school.
General technical score. A measure of ability
to deal with verbal and quantitative concepts.
Individual differences. Any personological
variable which can be used to furnish ATI's.
Information processing. The cognitive opera
tions thought to be associated with the utilization
and storage of stimuli.
10
Instructional design. The systematic process
of analyzing instructional requirements, followed by
the designing, developing, and validating of training
materials. Based on the success of the validation,
materials either are ready for use or are reworked
and retested.
Instructional medium. The physical hardware
which supports an instructional method (e.g., a self-
paced interactive audiovisual device or a programed
text).
Instructional method. The general process of
instruction (e.g., lecture or self-paced).
Media mix. The use of multiple media.
Military Occupational Speciality. A specific
Army qualification rating (e.g., communication
specialist 32D, or tank turret repairman 19G).
Service school. Any of the twenty-three
specialized schools within the active Army (e.g.,
Air Defense School, or Armor School).
Skill level. Army proficiency grade levels
within a military occupational speciality.
Space perception score. A measure of one's
ability to visualize and manipulate objects in space.
11
Technical documentation. Military manuals for
operation and maintenance of equipment.
Trait anxiety. An individual's general level
of psychic tension.
Assumptions
It was assumed that:
1. The instruments used to measure anxiety,
achievement, media preference, ability,
space perception, and general aptitude
were both valid and reliable.
2. The space perception score would correlate
highly with traditional measures of field
independence.
Delimitations and Limitations
This study was delimited to:
1. Subjects furnished by the Army Air Defense
Center, Fort Bliss.
2. Training on the Chaparral energizing and
daily preventive maintenance checks.
The limitations imposed on this study were:
1. The size of the sample population.
2. The aptitude and ability variables. As
treated in this study they were limited
12
to those available in the subject's personnel
file, plus measures of anxiety and media
preference.
Summary and Overvi ew of
Remaining Chapters
This dissertation is comprised of five chapters.
Chapter I has identified the specific problems and
purposes of the study, as well as the relevant defini
tions, delimitations, and limitations. Chapter II
will review relevant literature concerned with the
specific problems which this study addressed. Chapter
III will present the methods and procedures used for
the implementation of the study. Chapter IV will
contain the findings of the study, and Chapter V will
present the summary, conclusions, and recommendations.
13
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The purpose of this chapter was to review the
relevant literature concerned with the specific problems
and questions identified previously. It is organized
in the following sections: (1) media selection, (2)
aptitude-treatment interaction, and (3) the experimental
variables. The chapter will conclude with a summary
and a listing of the tentative conclusions reached as
a result of the literature review.
Media Selection
Military, civilian, and industrial training
designers are commonly required to select appropriate
media for instructional purposes. Media selection
models and schemes have been developed to assist the
designer in this process. However, despite the com
plexity of some media selection models, all still rely
on the designer1 s expertise for successful implementa
tion.
Lack of agreement exists concerning the use of
media. Gropper (55) dichotomized media into passive
carriers and active carriers. Passive carriers serve
merely to transmit the instructional content as in the
14
manner commonly associated with television, radio,
slide/tape, and printed book formats* Active carriers,
however, accommodate strategies of feedback and active
responding, as does either computer assisted instruction
(CAI) or programed text instruction.
A more abstract interpretation of media’s use
was offered by Salomon (96). He viewed media as a
collection of symbol systems, each of which is able to
structure, highlight, and present specific content to
particular types of learners.
Briggs et al. (21) espoused the classical
behaviorist view that media functions to evoke the
necessary response patterns for effective learning.
This view identified a variety of instructional
strategies which were derived from stimulus processes
thought to be useful for different types and stages of
learning (48).
The meaning and use of media are necessarily
joined in media selection models, the simplest form
of which uses a matrix with selection criteria along
one axis and candidate media along the other axis
(70, 80, 102). Although the specific selection
criteria vary with each model’s emphasis and applica
tion, it is not uncommon to find cost, media availabil
ity, and media display capabilities in the matrix.
15
By examining the selection criteria axis a model*s user
can easily determine, from the matrix entries, which
media are potential candidates for a specific applica
tion.
Other media selection models use an algorithm
(5, 60) approach which requires the user to answer a
series of yes/no questions about the instructional
requirements. In this manner the model's user is MledH
toward a pool of media alternatives, any of which can
potentially satisfy these requirements. Anderson (5)
developed separate algorithms for the selection of
instructional aids and the selection of instructional
media. While Anderson's approach was a functional one,
Herem (60) used a behavioral approach to develop
separate algorithms for each type of learning.
Media selection routines are not always modeled
around matrices or algorithms. Some simply serve as
descriptive indices of media types (53, 83) which can
support a proceduralized media selection plan, such as
the one suggested by Briggs et al. (21), or the one by
Allen (4). Both plans suggest matching media options
with instructional requirements after behavioral
objectives and the types of learning have been
specified.
Military media selection models typically have
been more complex than others because of the greater
16
variety of tasks they address and the greater number of
media alternatives they need to consider. However, one
such model prepared for the Army is still applicable to
the civilian sector (114). It requires the training
designer to separately consider the requirements for
training methods, student differences, and media alterna
tives. Potential methods (e.g., lecture and demonstra
tion) are first identified using behavioral and
situational selection guidelines. Next, student
differences (e.g., education and ability) are used to
single out an effective method. Finally, all media
(e.g., slides and filmstrips) that can implement the
method are identified, and the best chosen. Spangenberg
et al. (114) suggested that the model could most easily
be implemented if edge-punched cards, one for each
medium, were coded with all of the considerations for
cost and effectiveness needed for selection. Then,
card-sorting needles could be used to perform the steps
described above.
An algorithm approach was used in one model
developed for the selection of training materials for
Navy pilots and radar officers (61). After tasks are
identified and analyzed to furnish a hierarchy of
behavioral objectives, the algorithm is used to identify
primary and secondary media alternatives to address each
17
objective. The algorithm considers (1) level of
expected student behavior, (2) level of content taught,
(3) amount of practice required for mastery, (4)
minimum display requirements, and (5) amount of memo
rization required. During the final syllabus develop
ment stage the preferred medium is selected which could
best serve all the objectives within each lesson. To
assist in this selection a detailed "dictionary" of
candidate media is then made available listing media
strengths and weaknesses.
A comprehensive instructional design model
called MODIA (a method of designing instructional
alternatives) was developed for the Air Force (89).
Guided by an extensive and detailed curriculum analysis
questionnaire (CAQ), the instructional designer
specifies design, learner, curriculum, cost, and
institutional variables and constraints for each
learning event in the course. When completed, a coded
matrix results which can be inputed to a computer for
optimizing instructional decisions. Computer assistance,
while desirable, is not imperative since the designer
can manually use the CAQ to analyze the learning events
in increasing detail, and to discover which can benefit
from instructional media. Although specific media are
not identified, the algorithm terminates in a taxonomy
18
of media groups used to assist selection (20).
Another recent model, called the Training
Effectiveness and Cost Effectiveness Prediction (TECEP)
technique, attempts to make available to Navy training
specialists a procedure for choosing appropriate
instructional delivery systems (16). It reflects the
refinement of earlier efforts to develop such a model
(16, 17). Braby et al. designed the TECEP technique
to serve:
. . . as a performance aid for the training
specialist to use in defining appropriate
training strategies for training objectives,
choosing instructional delivery systems capable
of carrying out the training strategies, and
identifying the relative cost of these alterna
tives. (17:8)
The TECEP technique requires that tasks first
be analyzed into specific behavioral objectives.
These training objectives are then classified and
grouped according to the type of learning associated
with the objective. Eleven types of common military
learning groups (e.g., using verbal information,
making decisions, and detecting) were catalogued by
Aagard and Braby (1). For each of these groups a
learning algorithm is developed which integrates both
instructional design and learner processes thought
necessary for mastery. The second step of the TECEP
model requires the training specialist to identify
19
two or more types of instructional delivery systems
which support the particular algorithm. The specialist
is assisted by a set of instructional delivery system
selection charts, each of which corresponds to one of
the learning algorithms. The charts are matrices of
media alternatives and selection criteria, with an "X”
appearing in those cells of each matrix where the
instructional delivery system satisfies the special
criteria. A cost model is used during the third and
final step of TECEP to estimate the cost of the alterna
tive systems, and to allow the selection of the most
cost-effective instructional delivery system, or mix of
systems, that will facilitate learning.
The TECEP technique is a Mby-the-numbers11 pro
cedure. However, to provide the flexibility needed for
innovative responses to special instructional situations,
the TECEP model offers an alternative method for choosing
instructional delivery systems. This method identifies
fifty-five generic characteristics of media (e.g.,
capabilities for providing color, motion, feedback,
etc.) which can be used to prescribe the requirements
of a proposed instructional system. The model's user
then turns to a compendium which discusses eighty-nine
types of instructional media, and selects a medium or
media mix that will fulfill these requirements.
20
As a result of a recent evaluation of Army
training doctrine it was decided that a too narrow
perspective prevailed with regard to training methods
(9, 10). Thus, new models of implementation, manage
ment, and cost were sought to provide Army training
that would be learner-centered, realistic, cost-
effective, and job-related. Out of this effort came
the largest delivery systems selection model to date
which produced three user documents: (1 ) a procedure
guide for delivery systems selection (24), (2) a
delivery systems data base (107), and (3) a sample
application of the procedure to an existing Army
training requirement (8 ).
This delivery systems selection procedure, like
its Navy and Air Force counterparts, is designed to be
used by an experienced training specialist. The pro
cedure guide is designed to interface with the delivery
systems data base which contains information on a wide
variety of Army delivery systems currently or poten
tially available. It is a comprehensive document (465
pages) which indexes forty-two delivery systems grouped
into twelve separate "families.” The sample application
is used to validate the procedure, and also serves as
a performance aid which accompanies the procedure guide.
The types of actions required to perform media selection
21
are shown below:
1. Determine overall program requirements and
constraints.
2. Identify delivery system family and member
candidates.
3. Determine subject matter requirements on
delivery system.
4. Determine mix of delivery system requirements
to meet the overall training program.
5. Prepare rationale to substantiate delivery
system mix requirements for overall training
program.
6 . Determine delivery system requirements for
each module/lesson.
7. Assign optimal delivery system mix to each
module/lesson.
8 . Prepare substantiating rationale for each
module/lesson delivery system requirement
(24).
While the Army's model is as sophisticated as
any currently available, it typifies the workings of
most other models. A detailed task analysis is first
performed (Steps 1, 2 , and 3 above), candidate media
are identified (Steps 4 and 5 above), and a selection
effected (Steps 6 , 7, and 8 above). These procedures
22
have been performed most successfully with the assist
ance of matrices, algorithms, detailed media diction
aries, and computer based data retrieval systems.
Little research exists on the effectiveness of
media selection models. No single procedure has been
found acceptable for wide scale application. Media
selection decisions often fall subject to "real world"
constraints which are far removed from instructional
concerns. The next section of this chapter discusses
research which has attempted to make the matching of
learner and media a more individualized process.
Aptitude-Treatment Interaction
Various methods of individualized instruction
have been implemented to personalize the educational
process. Methods used have ranged from simple self-
paced instruction, which allows each learner to pursue
mastery while working at his own speed, to instructional
routines so sophisticated that computers are needed to
manage and provide schedules of feedback, practice,
remediation, and content alternatives specifically
designed to maximize the learning of each student.
One guiding methodology for the investigation
and implementation of adaptive instruction is known
23
as aptitude-treatment interaction (63, 113, 120).
Bibliographic references to the ATI research have been
compiled by Cronbach and Snow (33, 34) and by Clark (30).
ATI's basic premise is that a single instructional
program will not be equally effective in helping all
students to achieve a given set of objectives. Conse
quently, "a greater proportion of students will attain
the instructional objectives when instruction is dif
ferentiated for different types of students” (18:627).
That is, the interaction of student aptitude and
treatment alternatives can be used to optimally match
learners and teaching strategies. Such strategies
may incorporate variations in instructional design
parameters and/or whole media prescriptions.
ATI investigators have accepted a broad inter
pretation of the aptitude measure. It has been taken
to be any enduring personological variable upon which
individuals differ (87). Anxiety, intelligence, prior
knowledge, and dogmatism are some of the aptitudes
that have been used (41). In fact, due to the popular
association of aptitude with intelligence, some
researchers have preferred to use terms other than
aptitude. Berliner and Cahen (11) found trait-treatment
interaction (TTI) a less restrictive label, while
Tobias (120) preferred to maintain the popular ATI
24
abbreviation, only substituting "attribute" for
"aptitude. 11
Parkhurst defined a treatment as "any instruc
tional strategy or combination of instructional
strategies that structures information for the purpose
of having students learn that information" (8 6 :2 ).
Individual instructional design parameters, as well
as more global media comparisons, have all been tested
within the ATI framework. Indeed, the lists of treat
ments and aptitudes used in ATI investigations are
both long and diverse.
Data collected during ATI studies can be
analyzed by analysis of variance techniques which
expose interactions between aptitude and treatments
by the position and magnitude of cell means (1 1 ).
Typically, however, regression analysis is employed
because it is a stronger statistical technique (1 1 2 ).
Separate regression lines of the dependent variable
are constructed onto the aptitude of interest for
each treatment. Interactions are then considered
present if the regression lines for the separate treat
ments are found nonparallel using standard F or t tests.
ATI studies need not always furnish intersecting
(i.e., disordinal) regression lines to be of value for
differentiating student assignments. In cases where
25
regression lines do not intersect, but are also non
parallel (i.e., an ordinal interaction), the "higher"
line may identify an optimum treatment for all students,
especially if it is the lowest cost treatment (63).
However, if the treatments are of significantly differ
ent cost, then even an ordinal interaction can suggest
a differential treatment assignment when the "cost" of
inadequate performance is considered (18). Additionally,
ordinal regression lines may become disordinal when
extended to include a wider range of values of the
aptitude variable (1 1 2 ).
ATI researchers have been quite frank in their
assessment of the ATI methodology. Federico, after
reviewing the ATI literature for its possible applica
tion to military training, concluded the following:
Little empirical evidence has been obtained to
support the aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI)
approach. . . • The ATI literature is plagued
by inconsistencies that preclude appropriate
extrapolations. If there is a trend in the
literature it would seem to be that the results
. of ATI studies are incompatible. Very few ATIs
have been substantiated to the extent that they
can be used unequivocally as prescriptions for
accommodating instruction to student character
istics. (41:6)
Federico's opinion was a popular one. Tobias
felt that ATI had enjoyed too few successes to be
adopted as a prescriptive technique. Even if ATI's
were found would the following questions hold true:
26
(a) Can instructional methods be designed to
rely exclusively on one set of abilities?
(b) What is the temporal consistency of the
abilities required by the task?
(c) Do the abilities generalize from one
curricular area to another? (120:64)
Although the reason for ATI's failure to produce
disordinal results is not known, several hypotheses
have been offered. The treatment variables may be too
vague (79) or too redundant (93), or the aptitude
variables may be too poorly defined (90). Several
critics have cited the lack of effective design strate
gies used in ATI research (8 6 , 101).
The task of identifying optimal learning strate
gies that can be matched to learner differences is
apparently a sizable undertaking. The complexity of
the problem may be greater than originally had been
anticipated. Simple interactions between aptitude and
treatment variables may, in fact, be unable to furnish
practical guidelines for learning. Higher order
interactions, which sometimes are revealed in experi
ments with large samples and which use complex
statistical techniques, may need to be sought (33).
ATI analyses might be aided by the use of more
specifically described aptitude and treatment variables
(40, 87). Such may be accomplished by using taxonomic
frameworks to more precisely identify, define, and
27
group the variables studied in ATI experiments (29,
112). In addition, conducting a behavioral task
analysis as the first step in ATI (92), as well as
using multi-aptitude, -trait, and -outcome measures
(1 1 ) could contribute to more effective research
designs.
Thus the literature indicates that greater
specificity is required, not only for the ATI variables
themselves, but also for the evaluative instruments
of ATI research. Standardized "off-the-shelf” tests
may be unable to expose the precise characteristics of
the ATI variables sought. Federico stated:
Tests of general ability and aptitudes have been
produced and validated within distinct educational
environments. Consequently, these instruments are
important indices of instructional outcomes but
are not useful indicators of optimal learning
processes or instructional treatments; that is,
measures of general ability and aptitude were
designed to select students who would probably
benefit the most from education in general. As
such, these psychometric instruments cannot
identify which instructional treatments are best
for specific types of students. Tests of general
ability, aptitude, and intelligence cannot dis
tinguish styles of learning. (41:10)
Shuell (104) suggested that an improved evalua
tive instrument for ATI investigations could be
generated if a data bank of individual measures were
identified which differentially predicted performance
on alternative treatments. Through successive valida
tion an item pool would be generated and made available
28
to ATI researchers. The use of better defined ATI
variables and evaluative instruments may help to expose
important interactions which have been masked by more
global investigations (113). Such "improved11 ATI
studies might then be better able to suggest unique
instructional design strategies for specific learners
and tasks (63).
Providing for a greater specificity of ATI
variables and instruments may be a necessary, but not
sufficient, condition for realizing practical benefits.
It has been suggested that ATI experiments should be
removed from controlled "laboratory" settings where
artificial learning tasks preclude valid generaliza
tions to real classrooms (41, 100). The external
validity characteristically provided by field environ
ment studies may be needed to bridge the gap between
theory and practice in ATI (98).
Factors that may limit generalizations from
experiments conducted in artificial settings have been
identified for psychomotor learning. According to
Singer and Gerson, real-world skills may be unique in
that they;
. . • (a) take a considerable amount of time
and effort to learn well, (b) impose demands
for instantaneous decision-making to unpre
dictable cues, (c) may involve the use of
appropriate and effective tactics and strategies
29
to solve both familiar and nonfamiliar problems,
and (d) may require the proper control over
emotions for use during stressful or arousing
situations. (108:2)
Research designs are available for field ATI
studies which should afford the proper components of
both external and internal validity (98). It has been
suggested that pilot studies could help researchers to
anticipate the likely modes of behavior of each treat
ment and their operational relationship with specific
aptitudes (1 1 2 ).
It is believed by some that ATI can be made a
decision oriented research tool capable of (1 ) confirm
ing specific cause and effect relationships, (2 )
providing cost-effective analyses, and (3) furnishing
longitudinal ntrack records” of student achievement
under alternative instructional strategies (81, 8 6 ).
However, ATI investigations may need to be restricted
to well defined local instructional situations. The
summation of several such investigations could con
ceivably furnish more general instructional theories
( 111) .
To review, it has been conjectured that ATI's
functional use would improve if both the independent
and dependent variables were better defined and
measured, and if the search for ATI's were conducted
in natural settings on specific instructional problems.
30
Additional improvement could be gained if researchers
considered a medium's physical stimuli secondary in
importance to the psychological processes which a
medium elicits (4, 72, 77, 97). That is, ATI may be
more successful in allowing the selection of alterna
tive teaching strategies if this selection were based
on the cognitive processes used by different students
to acquire, retain, and retrieve specific material.
It is these intervening mediating activities which may
have to be measured and employed to successfully select
the most appropriate instructional techniques (41).
In considering the psychological functions of
media, Salomon offered his distinction between research
on media and research with media. The latter type of
research is "guilty" of the simplistic conceptualiza
tion of media as a passive display system and, as such,
may be responsible for the sparcity of significant
ATI's. In contrast, research on media attempts to
uncover the dynamic interactions between "unique media
attributes and their unique psychological functions
under specific task requirements and specific learners"
(97:41).
Theoretical models have been proposed which
attempt to explain the mediating cognitive processes
of learning. Using these models, researchers could
31
develop task relevant instructional materials in a
manner consistent with the processing patterns hypothe
sized. An evaluation of the learning accomplished by
the instructional design so suggested could lead to a
refinement of the model. Such a scheme was used by
Elliot (39) on a learning model of cognitive style.
Snow (112) advocated using instructional media
to compensate for weaknesses in a learner’s repertoire
of processing capabilities. The compensatory model,
as Snow termed it, requires that design principles be
built into instructional presentations as prosthetic
devices, performing the information processing functions
which the learner is unable to provide for himself (77).
However, results from some investigations using this
model have not been supportive of the approach (39, 47).
A second model, which is opposite in its
approach to the compensatory model, also was suggested
by Snow (112). The preferential model, as it is called,
stresses the use of treatments which can capitalize on
the apparent strengths and preferences of a learner.
Such strengths can be identified from aptitude measures,
from a learner's prior performance, or even from a
learner's self-stated preference.
The use of different models for suggesting
adaptive instructional strategies has been studied by
32
Hansen et al. (57). They conducted a computer simula
tion of three such models as part of an Air Force
project to develop understanding about individualized
training options. The drill-and-practice model uses
preassessment (i.e., aptitude and personality) measures
and rules to guide the student to mastery after instruc
tion has occurred by altering practice and feedback
routines. The pacing model uses only performance
measures to achieve shorter performance times without
degrading the student*s mastery. The monitoring model
selects instructional treatments using prediction
techniques that aim to match characteristics of indi
vidual students with training characteristics in a
preferential design, not unlike the one suggested by
Snow (112).
Singer et al. (110) proposed a model which
identifies the cognitive operations thought to be
used by a learner in acquiring, selecting, and execut
ing a motor response. The model also may be applicable
to the learning of cognitive skills because of the
commonality of much of the hypothesized information
processing schemes (109). According to Singer et al.
(1 1 0 ), a learner*s inefficient performance is due to
a functional deficiency somewhere in the cognitive
processing or movement generation subsystems represented
33
by the model* In other words, higher skilled indi
viduals organize, process, and store information more
effectively and efficiently by employing strategies
that enhance information flow and utilization.
Singer et al. desired to develop in learners
the capability for self-generating effective learning
strategies. They reported their beliefs as follows:
• . • (a) alternative strategies need to be
identified as to their relative potential impact,
(b) strategies should be introduced to enhance
the trainee's effectiveness in learning specific
content, (c) trainees need to know which strategies
will work in particular situations, and (d)
trainees should retain more and transfer learning
capabilities better without external directions,
guidance, or prompts under desirable circumstances
if the learners understand how and when to use
strategies. (110:4)
Singer et al. (108) developed a set of opera
tional definitions derived from the theory that (1 )
a learning requirement activates potential alternative
strategies, (2 ) a particular strategy influences a
corresponding cognitive mechanism, and (3) each
cognitive mechanism consists of specific cognitive
activities. These same authors reduced these opera
tional definitions to a series of charts which may
assist researchers to analyze the performance of
highly skilled individuals. In so doing they may be
able to determine which cognitive processes should be
activated or suppressed at various points in the
34
sequence of performing a skill. These authors also
developed a classification scheme of psychomotor tasks
and strategies to assist in such analyses.
Why has ATI produced so few results of conse
quence? White conjectured:
One possible reason for their failure is that
they are inefficient methods, with as much
probability of success as that of the traditional
finding a needle in a haystack; another possible
reason is that there may not be any interaction
to find— the haystack is totally devoid of
needles. (126:140)
While ATI has its critics (25), the lack of
concrete findings has not halted interest in ATI.
There appears to be intuitive logic in an approach
that simply assumes, since all learners are not alike,
that all treatments should not be alike (92). Con
ceivably, better experimental designs, or stronger
statistical tools, or more sophisticated presentation
systems may reveal ATI's practical utilization.
The Experimental Variables
The following experimental variables were
considered both likely and practical candidates to
furnish aptitude-treatment interactions in the present
study.
35
Anxiety
Anxiety has been used frequently as a variable
in ATI studies (8 6 , 104, 112). In fact, Cronbach and
Snow (33), who devoted an entire chapter to anxiety in
their handbook for research on interactions, claimed
that no other variable had been investigated as
thoroughly as had anxiety. In addition, a recent
text (106) was devoted to detailing anxiety's effect
on instruction.
Several types of anxieties have been identified
(78), but only two are of primary interest in educa
tional research (128). The first, trait anxiety, is a
stable measure of an individual's baseline anxiety
level. The second, state anxiety, is a situation
specific measure of an individual's reaction to an
anxiety provoking occurrence (e.g., a test or a threat).
Of these two, trait anxiety is the more practical for
suggesting adaptive instructional strategies due to
its constancy over time (33).
Anxiety often has been studied in interaction
with other variables. In these anxiety-treatment
interactions feedback (87), memory support (97, 113),
and inductive/deductive strategies (90, 117) have all
been studied.
Tobias (121) considered anxiety's effect on
learning in terms of the classical information
36
processing model of input, processing, and output* He
compared anxiety*s effect to a pair of filters: one
placed between the input and processing blocks of the
model, the other placed between the processing and
output blocks* The first, the preprocessing filter,
restricts the transmission of the instructional content
by diverting the learner's attention to task irrelevant
stimuli* Instruction possessing inherent organization,
feedback, attention directing cues, or instruction
which offers the student the opportunity to review the
material presented, should overcome the effect of the
preprocessing filter and thus be especially beneficial
to the performance of high anxiety students (121). The
second filter is in the postprocessing position and
serves to prevent a student from outputting (i.e.,
demonstrating) that which he has processed (i.e.,
mastered). For example, this filter may be responsible
for the "freezing up" behavior of highly anxious but
otherwise well prepared students on tests.
Sheehan and Hambleton (103) found support for
Tobias' filter hypothesis. Their study used four
treatments (teacher directed lecture, mediated audio
visual, assigned readings, and a programed text) to
present science topics to 285 ninth grade pupils.
Prior knowledge, intelligence, motivation, and anxiety
37
were but a few of the many cognitive and noncognitive
aptitude and ability measures taken. Only one signifi
cant ATI was found which suggested that assigned
readings, in contrast to a programed text, could
improve the retention of science material by low
anxiety students. Possibly the assigned readings
failed to provide the reinforcement and organization
of input required by the high anxiety subjects.
Consistent with the filter theory, increasing
the difficulty of the material to be learned should
disadvantage high anxiety students to a greater degree
than low anxiety ones. Such was reported by Crawford
(31), who presented programed instructional materials
to groups of college students. As the difficulty of
the materials increased, students low in anxiety scored
relatively better than those high in anxiety. The
difficult materials drew more heavily, no doubt, on
the attention directing and organizing capabilities
of the learners.
In another study (71) using college students,
two versions of a biology course were offered.
Students in the self-paced program were allowed to
retake criterion referenced examinations up to five
times. Students in the traditional course had one
attempt each at a midterm and a final. The researchers
38
found that grades in the self-paced course correlated
with time spent in study for the course, while grades
in the traditional course reflected prior knowledge.
When sex and anxiety variables were compared it was
found that female students demonstrated higher test
anxiety than males. Also, test anxiety, which was
associated with increased perseverance in the self-
paced program, was associated with decreased perse
verance in the traditional program.
This study, too, supports the Tobias filter
theory. In the self-paced treatment subjects high in
test anxiety apparently availed themselves of the
opportunity for additional review. In the treatment
where this option was not present the high anxiety
subjects could not satisfactorily obtain the input
and decreased perseverance resulted.
If repeated access to the input overcomes the
debilitating effect of the preprocessing filter, then
treatments with little reliance on memory of previously
learned material should offer an optimum strategy for
high anxiety individuals learning a series of steps
comprising a complex learning task (97). Sieber (103)
had tested this hypothesis by providing low and high
anxiety subjects with visual treatments varying in
their degree of memory support. When no memory supports
39
were provided high anxiety subjects outperformed the
low anxiety ones. However, when memory supports were
offered, the superiority of the low anxiety group
vanished. This result lends further credence to the
filter theory.
Anxiety often has proved to be the single most
statistically significant variable in ATI investigations.
Such was the case in a study by Tallmadge et al. (118)
which attempted to identify interactions among learner
characteristics, subject matter, and presentation style
in four courses attended by Navy enlistees. Although
all fifteen cognitive measures in their experiment
failed to reveal ATI*s, most of the thirteen noncogni
tive (i.e., interest and personality) measures investi
gated showed interactions, the strongest of which
involved anxiety. The researchers reported that low
anxiety introverts were most effectively taught subject
matter possessing inherent logic by inductive treatments,
and that they were best taught subject matter without
inherent logic (e.g., rote learning) by deductive
means. High anxiety extroverts were found to respond
more effectively to the opposite arrangement of
treatments.
Since it was impossible to determine from the
Tallmadge et al. study whether the type of teaching
40
(inductive or deductive) or the type of learning
(understanding or rote) was responsible for the inter
action, the experiment was refined and replicated (117)
with 353 Navy enlisted men on whom achievement test
scores were correlated with thirty-nine aptitude,
interest, and achievement measures. The latter experi
ment isolated the interaction to one between student
anxiety and method of instruction. The deductive
instructional method was found to be significantly
superior for the low anxiety group, although no such
interaction was revealed for the high anxiety group.
The relationship of a treatment's inductiveness
or deductiveness to Tobias' (121) model is not clear.
Deductive reasoning involves a logical process in
which a conclusion drawn from a set of premises contains
no more information than the premises taken collectively
(123). Conversely, inductive reasoning involves a
logical process in which a conclusion is proposed that
contains more information than the observations or the
experience on which it is based. One could conjecture
that treatments using inductive reasoning are more
demanding than similar treatments using deductive
reasoning, and thus are less facilitating for low
anxiety learners. In any case, the research cited
failed to suggest an explanation for the relationship.
41
Anxiety was included in the present study because
of its success in achieving statistical significance
in ATI studies (11, 33, 121). As such, anxiety measures
may help to determine media prescriptions for the
effective assignment of military personnel.
Ability
In educational research ability has been equated
with prior knowledge and is often measured with a
pretest instrument (122). A determination of each
learner’s prior knowledge may be used to vary design
parameters in individualized instructional settings.
Such adaptive instruction serves to offer each student
a program compatible with his unique learning style.
In computer assisted instruction (CAI) accurate and
frequent determinations of a student's ability are
crucial for his correct placement along branched
programing routines (95).
It has been suggested that the amount of
instructional support should be inversely related to
a student's level of prior knowledge (87, 90, 120, 122).
For example, a program of instruction that uses simple
line drawings and brief written descriptions can be
considered less supportive (i.e., offer less realism)
in a content sense than a full orchestrated sound and
color presentation on the same topic. And, a program
42
that merely presents information can be considered
less supportive in a structural sense than one that
is edited to facilitate understanding and includes
processing aids (e.g., stated objectives, advanced
organizers, and feedback).
Parkhurst expected that the ATI approach might
be useful in helping to solve the controversy between
the realism theorists (i.e., those who advocate
realistic depictions) and the relevant cue theorists
(those concerned that realism offers too many irrele
vant cues). He suggested that the hypothesis be
tested that:
. . . realistic visuals will facilitate learning
Eon a high level educational objective] only for
students who are relatively unfamiliar with a
particular content area, while there will be no
significant differences among visual treatment
groups [low, medium, and high degree of realism]
for students who are relatively familiar with a
particular content area. (87:178)
Such would be the case if students with prior
knowledge could develop sufficiently efficient learning
strategies that would enable them to abstract the
necessary information from the simplified visuals.
Students without prior knowledge, on the other hand,
would require more information rich visuals to success
fully accomplish the high level educational objective.
For these students the visually simple illustration
would be unable to provide sufficient relevant informa
tion. 4 3
Several experiments have been conducted to test
the hypothesis that students low in relevant abilities
are best served by instructional treatments which
provide maximal instructional support. Tobias (1 2 0 )
designed a program which consisted of fifty-five frames
dealing with the incidence and severity of heart
disease, followed by eighty-nine frames of a technical
nature addressing the diagnosis of heart disease. The
first fifty-five frames contained material familiar
to the test subjects, while the latter eighty-nine
frames presented material for which the subjects had
no prior knowledge. Two instructional presentations
were offered. The first contained a logical frame
sequence, overt responding, and feedback (i.e., the
maximal treatment). The other involved only a simple
reading of the material (i.e., the minimal treatment).
The programed version was found superior, but only for
the unfamiliar content.
In another experiment, using only the technical
portion of the program, junior high and college students
were given a prefamiliarization session at which half
the subjects received an introduction to the program1s
content (120). Afterwards all subjects were assigned
randomly to either a minimal instructional support
(assigned reading) treatment or a maximal instructional
44
support (constructed responding) treatment. Subjects
who received the prefamiliarization, and who also were
assigned to the reading treatment, scored significantly
higher on tests of achievement and retention than those
subjects who received the prefamiliarization and were
assigned to the constructed responding treatment. The
additional instructional support afforded by the
constructed responding treatment may have interfered
with the subjects' own processing strategies developed
as a result of the prefamiliarization exposure (1 2 2 ).
Among subjects who did not receive the prefamiliariza
tion, the constructed responding group scored higher
than the reading group on both measures.
In ATI investigations, where few relationships
stand up to tests of replication, the consistent
relationship of prior knowledge and instructional
support stands out. It has been observed for different
age groups and across a variety of educational content.
Crist-Whitzel and Hawley-Winne (32) examined the
relationship between a number of cognitive and affec
tive learner characteristics, including ability.
They attempted to relate these characteristics to
mathematics achievement in three different sixth grade
classes varying in the degree of individualization.
Pretest achievement, it was found, accounted for the
45
majority of the observed variance in the posttest
scores. Also, students high on pretest achievement
performed better in the two less individualized of the
three treatments. The opposite effect was observed
for subjects with low pretest achievement.
In another study using elementary school students
(1 2 2 ), one group received a narrative presentation on a
topic of religious education while the other group
received a programed text on the same topic. A pretest
served as the measure of prior achievement. An inter
action was found indicating that the superiority of
programed instruction diminished as the pretest score
increased, even to the point of disappearing.
Pascarella (8 8 ) also found an ordinal interaction
when he compared prior knowledge in mathematics with
the presentation mode used to teach a calculus course.
When lecture and individualized instructional modes
were compared the effects of the individualized
instructional method in improving achievement were
most pronounced for students at the relatively lowest
levels of prior mathematics preparation. This advantage
tended to diminish progressively as the level of
mathematics preparation increased.
In all of the cited studies structure instruc
tional support as opposed to content instructional
46
support was varied. That is, treatments were compared
which offered high and low processing assistance as
controlled by the degree of programing and individual
ization incorporated in the treatments. One study
which varied content instructional support was conducted
by Roberts and Hearold (94), using the same treatments
as in the present study. Soldiers without prior
knowledge (i.e., low ability) were found to learn
more effectively from a programed text mode, while
those possessing some familiarity with the tasks scored
higher on achievement with the AV TEC. These findings
conflicted with those of Johnson (66), Neu (84), Borg
and Schuller (12), and Dwyer (38). All of these
authors found that embellishing visuals added nothing
to their instructional effectiveness.
An interesting interaction involving ability,
although not in relation to instructional support, was
found by Federico and Landis (42)• The researchers
correlated prior knowledge with sequential test scores
of enlistees in a Navy basic electronics course.
Ability, they found, was a better predictor of success
in the early part of the course, while aptitude was
the better predictor in the latter part. Subjects with
high prior knowledge may have been able to focus on
the critical cues starting with the onset of instruction.
47
As instruction proceeded, providing in effect its own
foundation of "prior" (i.e., prerequisite) knowledge,
the ability of the subjects equalized and ability was
replaced by aptitude as the dominant predictor variable.
Ability, like anxiety discussed previously, was
included in the present investigation because of its
record of significantly interacting with treatments
varying in structural support.
Learner Media Preferences
Learner control is the name for instructional
strategies which offer the learner some control over
the amount, manner, or content of the material being
presented. Allowing the learner to select the pre
sentation mode is one, and perhaps the simplest, form
of learner control (99). In complex learner controlled
arrangements (e.g., CAI) learners have been able to
alter the amount and type of feedback, and to bypass
material over which they already have mastery (100).
As the popularity and capabilities of CAI systems
expand, even more sophisticated routines of learner
control may appear.
Gagn6 (49) hypothesized that learners may have the
inherent capability to implement effective personal learn
ing strategies. This view was shared by Merrill, who
advocated a theory of learner control somewhat at odds
48
with the basic premise of ATI when he wrote:
Individuals should be given some procedure
enabling them to adapt the environment to
themselves. The individuals should make
decisions about what tactic they want next
rather than having this decision made for
them. (79:221)
Merrill and others (76, 100) were concerned
that the ATI methodology, which attempts to identify
an optimum instructional approach for each student,
might serve to make the student system dependent.
Such, they felt, would ill prepare the student for the
less manipulated learning found outside the classroom.
A less limiting approach, they suggested, would be to
teach the student how to select his own optimal
instructional strategies for any content and at any
given time.
Federico questioned this approach, noting that
while some students could probably select an optimal
learning strategy, others likely could not or might
prefer not to. Federico concluded that much needs to
be learned about the relationship of student character
istics and successful learner control strategies. He
suggested that "research be conducted to identify (1)
which cognitive characteristics are salient for learner
control, and (2) which students can succeed in this
type of dynamic instructional environment" (41:22).
To these could be added the need for research to
49
determine where learner control can, or cannot, be
employed effectively (100).
Boutwell and Barton (13) criticized the ATI
approach for its predominant concern with static
treatment and aptitude variables. They suggested
using aptitude as a dynamic measure of a student's
behavior during instruction so that each step in the
learning process could be tailored to a student's
changing needs. Strategies of adaptive instruction
at this diminutive level have been guided by "micro-
learning " theories. Often CAI based, they have aimed
to approach the instructional support of a one-to-one
tutorial setting (13). A study (57) of alternate
training models of potential use for the Air Force
included a microlearning model which was expected to
be especially useful for rule learning and problem
solving instruction.
It is likely, as Federico (41) suggested, that
macrostrategies using pretask measures and micro
strategies using within task measures serve complementary
functions. Both may be needed to achieve effective
adaptive instructional materials.
Evidence as to whether or not learner control
has resulted in performance gains is ambiguous (73,
87, 95, 99). However, in treatments offering learner
50
control, increased satisfaction by learners and
decreased time required for instruction have been
noted (50, 95).
Critics of learner control have been concerned
that students might assume passive roles if offered
the option for control. Also, a theoretical rationale
appears to be absent in order to justify the expecta
tion that students might select presentation tactics
more effectively than experienced instructors would
(63). The call for learner control may, in fact,
acknowledge the ineffectiveness of existing theories
of instruction to select optimal strategies and thus
shift the "responsibility” to the student. In at least
one case in the literature reviewed by George (50),
student control resulted in significantly decreased
learner achievement.
Support, however, is available for learner
control theorists. In a study by Morris et al. (82)
149 college students attending a child development
course were identified randomly as control or experi
mental subjects. The controls had weekly homework
assignments. The experimental subjects, who were
given the same assignments, could submit them at any
time during the semester. Although the experimental
group procrastinated in submitting the assignments,
51
they scored as well as the control group on tests of
comprehension and retention.
In a CAI study by Seidel et al. (100) students
were offered control of the type and frequency of
remediation, as well as some control over the sequencing
of content. Data were collected on student entry
characteristics, the frequency of learner control
strategies used, achievement, and student opinions.
It was found that achievement was significantly corre
lated with the frequency of use of the strategy options.
Learner control has been considered to have
potential significance, even if only applicable to
some students in certain learning settings (35).
Goodman (52) predicted that the learning styles and
media preferences of students will be important for
future integrated multimedia information learning
systems.
Media preference was selected for inquiry in
the present study to help to determine if students
could identify an optimum mode of instruction for
themselves. If a learner's estimation of his own
"media literacy" (113) was accurate it might serve
to assist student assignment to media alternatives.
A comparison between TEC and a programed text in a
study by Roberts and Hearold (94) did find a signifi
cant correlation between achievement and treatments
52
which allowed learner selection of the presentation
modality. Additionally, Hecht (59) found that college
students completing an algebra course preferred, by a
three-to-one margin, programed text booklets modeled
directly from audiovisual presentations over the audio
visual presentations themselves. The reason offered,
in most cases, was the students1 desire to control the
pace of the presentation, and this control was lacking
in the audiovisual mode.
Field Independence
(Spatial Perception)
Field independence, one of the cognitive style
variables, has been used frequently in ATI studies
(112). According to Ausburn and Ausburn, field
independence "concerns the ability to overcome embedded
ness in a stimulus field through active and analytic
as opposed to passive and global perception and process
ing of information" (7:347). Much of the pioneering
work on field independence was summarized by Witkin
et al. (127).
Measures of cognitive style have been useful in
optimally matching learners with display systems (112).
Maxey et al. (75) compared three modes of presentation
(programed text, lecture, and audiovisual) used by
officers enrolled at the Army Infantry School. Measures
53
of field independence were taken on the subjects using
the HumRRO Eknbedded Figures Test and the Educational
Testing Service Hidden Figures Test* The researchers
found that the two modes of instruction equally facili
tated the learning of field independent subjects.
However, the programed text format was found to be
significantly more effective for those subjects char
acterized as field dependent. In addition, a signifi
cant main effect was found favoring field independent
subjects.
Elliot (39) investigated the effect of providing
field independent and field dependent learners with
instructional routines designed to be consistent with
their respective cognitive styles. Such trait-by-
treatment matching produced positive results in three
out of four cases tested. In this study, too, a main
effect advantage was found for the field independent
subjects.
Federico and Landis (43) used an extensive
collection of cognitive style variables, aptitude
measures, and prior ability data to determine if they
could differentiate potential graduates from failures
in a Navy basic electronics course. The researchers
determined that field independent subjects comprised
a significantly greater proportion of the graduates.
54
The strength of the field independent main
effect appears to be considerable, Crist-Whitzel and
Hawley-Winne (32) found it in a study of three different
sixth grade mathematics classes exposed to varying
degrees of individualization. Grippin and Ohnmacht
(54) also found a field independent main effect during
their study of the use of prompts in a programed Russian
vocabulary lesson.
The study by Maxey et al. (75) suggested that an
interaction may have existed between a measure of a
learner's field independence and treatment assignment.
Several of the cited studies (32, 39, 43, 54, 75)
reported a main effect favoring the field independent
learner. The present study further examined both the
interaction effect and the main effect for field inde
pendence.
Visual and Aural Aptitudes
ATI can only be a practical methodology if
learner characteristics can be found to relate to
treatment alternatives in a stable and predictable
manner. Encouragement toward this end has been met
by the effort to identify visual and aural attenders.
That is, learners who optimally respond either to the
visual presentation of stimuli (e.g., printed text)
or to the aural presentation of stimuli (e.g., recorded
55
tape).
In addition to activating different sensory
registers, visual and aural mediums are thought to
require different processing strategies. According to
DiVesta:
Visual messages require less attention, because
they can be reviewed, than do aural messages.
For the same reason aural messages make greater
demands on short-term memory and on coding
processes, as compared to visual messages.
(37:191)
A study by Oakan et al., of learners* patterns
of linguistic organization and identification in
written and spoken communication, concurred with
DiVesta's identification of the short-term memory
effect. The writers found that:
. . . reading the passages themselves, the
subjects £ learners} may have been able to go
over words and sentences as many times as they
required; when listening to the taped stories,
however, they could only hear a single presenta
tion of the material. (85:77)
It was also pointed out by these same writers that,
when auding, "the listener's comprehension is not only
a function of his own skills, but also a function of
the speaker's skill in identification and in organiza
tion" (85:73).
In a comprehensive review of auding and reading,
conducted by Sticht et al. (116), the researchers found
support for their hypothesis that a student's ability
56
____
during the early school years to comprehend language
by auding surpasses the ability to comprehend language
by reading. Beyond the seventh or eighth grades reading
skill may be established, and auding and reading may be
comparable in both rate and comprehension. These
writers contended that reading and auding are based
upon the same conceptual structure and competencies;
reading requiring the one additional step needed to
decode the symbols (i.e., the printed words) of language.
In studies reviewed of individuals beyond the seventh
or eighth grades, no advantage was found by these
researchers for either the reading or auding modalities.
The Sticht et al. hypothesis is supported by a
number of studies. Budoff and Quinlan (22) presented
word pairs by audiotape and by flash card to seven and
eight year olds reading below, and at, grade level.
The audio presentation was particularly good for poor
readers, requiring fewer attempts to teach the paired
associates.
Oakan et al. (85) found that fifth graders
categorized as good readers scored higher on a posttest
of comprehension after being exposed to a story in
printed form than after hearing the same story on
audiotape. Poor readers, on the other hand, performed
better with the auditory presentation.
57
Support is also available for the assertion by
Sticht et al* (116*) that no difference exists in auding
and reading for linguistically mature individuals. In
a study by DeBoth and Dominowski (36) college students
found auditory and visual treatments equally facilitating
in a recall exercise using lists of words.
Kazanas et al. (67) used slides accompanied by
either a printed narration or a taped verbal narration
to teach two units of first year electricity programs
at an occupational school. One of the units was cogni
tive in emphasis, the other was psychomotor. The thirty
male subjects were identified as either high or low
ability readers. The authors reported that the time to
complete the psychomotor unit was dependent on the mode
of presentation and not on student reading ability (the
aural mode being faster). However, the time to complete
the cognitive unit was dependent on student reading
ability and not on the mode of presentation (better
readers being faster).
The identification of verbalizers and visualizers
appears possible at the earliest grade levels. Using
the Primary Mental Abilities test administered to sub
jects in kindergarten and second grade, Mallory (74)
found that verbalizers recalled more auditory elaborated
items than did visualizers, and that visualizers recalled
58
more visually elaborated items than did verbalizers.
In a similar study (68) of fourth graders, no such
distinction could be found. It was observed, however,
that both groups used the same search strategies to
abstract information from the presented content.
Learners who have failed to develop information
processing strategies might be aided by presentation
modalities less demanding of linguistic decoding skills.
Presentations employing the aural modality may inher
ently contain aids to identification and organization
which are absent in more visual treatments. However,
reading based treatments may offer compensating advan
tages (27). One of particular note is referability—
the ability to return to specific passages to reread
material that needs additional study. The present
investigation attempted to expose some of these rela
tionships and to explore their potential for use in
adaptive strategies of instruction.
Mental Aptitude
Mental aptitude, also referred to as general
mental aptitude, is a loosely defined construct related
to achievement (93). Although frequently a variable
of ATI investigations, it is difficult to interpret
because of its lack of purity. That is, general mental
aptitude, or "g" as it is sometimes labeled, exhibits
59
strong correlations with many other variables, thus
making the isolation of its effect difficult.
As a class, individuals with low mental aptitude
may be "deficient in abstract reasoning and in atten-
tional, perceptual coding, perceptual processing, and
analytical skills" (3:141).
Several intelligence models exist (28, 56) which
may serve to explain mental aptitude's role in the
learning process. One, on which a hierarchical theory
of learning is based, assumes that "g" consists of a
general level of fluid intelligence (G^), crystallized
intelligence (G ), and sometimes a spatial visualization
ability (Gv) (104).
The use of "g" in ATI studies has drawn mixed
results. Adaptive instructional routines that have
been implemented on low and high mental aptitude
learners have often been effective only for the lows
(93, 113). Other studies, however, reported that
strategies based on "g" have enabled both low and high
aptitude learners to reach criterion performance in
less time than control groups (51). It was also
observed, of college students exposed to programed
instructional materials, that students with high
Scholastic Aptitude Test scores were affected less
than lows as the difficulty of the materials increased
A number of studies suggest instructional design
prescriptions using mental aptitude variables. One
study, by Bush and Smith (23), uses a battery of
achievement and intelligence tests to categorize Army
students. Using a variety of presentation modes and
topics, the performance of those subjects with superi
ority in reading/vocabulary was compared with the
performance of those subjects strong in mathematics
fundamentals. It was found that nontechnical topics
were best presented to verbally strong students by
verbal modes of instruction. It was also found that
technical topics were best presented to students strong
in mathematics fundamentals using programed instruction
teaching machines (the Graflex Instructor and the
AutoTutor).
In separate studies using college and ninth grade
students with extreme discrepancies between their verbal
and quantitative aptitude scores, Johnson and Posner
(65) presented eight principles of class reasoning to
each subject by one of two versions of a programed
instructional unit. One version contained verbal
examples and scientific terminology, the other sub
stituted letter symbols for the scientific terms. The
hypothesis that students who were highly verbal would
learn better from the verbal program, and that students
with low verbal aptitude would learn better from the
symbolic program, was weakly confirmed.
When AV TEC was compared to conventional lecture
in a study of Army and National Guard units, AV TEC
was found to assist soldiers with low aptitude to
perform as well as their higher aptitude counterparts
(69). Conventional lecture was especially disadvantag
ing to the lower aptitude subjects. Knerr et al. (69)
suggested that AV TEC might be a good presentation
medium for an audience of heterogeneous aptitudes
receiving instruction on cognitive skills. This same
conclusion is evident from Hebein's (58) study, in
which alternative instructional strategies were used
to present a complex perceptual tracking task. Here,
too, an audiovisual individualized study mode served
to equalize the achievement of learners with high and
low verbal aptitudes.
While the above studies may suggest student
media assignments based on mental aptitude, other
studies clearly document a strong main effect relation
ship that aptitude shares with achievement.
Fox et al. (46) investigated the relationship
between cognitive aptitude and learner behavior on
eight tasks of varying complexity. One hundred eighty-
three Army recruits were identified by their Armed
62
Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) scores as
being of high, middle, or low aptitude. The researchers
found that the low aptitude subjects were slower to
respond, required more training time to reach criterion
performance, needed more guidance and repetition, and
were more variable as a group. The learning character
istics of the middle aptitude group were typically
intermediate between the lows and highs, but more like
the highs. A strong correlation was found to exist
between cognitive measures of aptitude and motor skill
performance.
The superiority of high aptitude learners was
found by Dansereau et al. (35) in a study using college
students exposed to print and pictorial versions of two
programs having both low and high content difficulty.
The higher verbal students performed substantially
better in all treatments.
In separate studies of Navy students enrolled
in a variety of different technical schools, Aiken
et al. (2) and Federico and Landis (42, 43) found
school failures to have lower reading and general
ability scores on the ASVAB.
Jacobs and Hardy (64) studied the effects of
AV TEC availability on Military Occupational Specialty
(MOS) proficiency for both active and National Guard
63
units. The researchers found a low, but significant,
positive correlation between verbal aptitude scores
and both MGS proficiency and the degree of AV TEC usage.
The literature reviewed on mental aptitude and
its effect on learning suggests that low verbal learners
learn best from treatments which do not require reading
(23, 35, 58). Learners with facility in verbal skills
appear to do as well (62), or better (23, 35, 65), with
treatments which require reading, as compared to treat
ments more aural in presentation. Such findings had
implications for the present study which served to
relate identifiable learner variables to treatment
alternatives.
Summary
It was the purpose of this chapter to examine
the methods that were used to select effective media
for instructional applications. Various media selection
models were discussed, including the more complex
computer assisted schemes that had been employed by
the military. The military*s need to identify cost-
effective instructional media was accentuated by the
large variety of tasks, environments, and learner
aptitudes and abilities which they needed to consider.
While media selection models averaged learner
characteristics to arrive at a single media prescription,
64
the technique of aptitude-treatment interaction was
used in the attempt to identify optimum adaptive
instructional systems at the individual level. The
approach, while perhaps conceptually sound, had diffi-
culty producing significant and consistent results.
In any case, it should still be an active area of
investigation.
Tentative Conclusions
The following tentative conclusions were reached
as a result of the literature review:
1. A negative correlation exists between trait
anxiety and achievement.
2. High trait anxiety students appear to learn
better with a programed text mode than with
an audiovisual mode.
3. A positive correlation exists between ability
and achievement.
4. Students allowed to select their own media
appear to learn better than students not
allowed to select their own media.
5. A positive correlation exists between
spatial perception and achievement.
6. Low spatially perceptive students appear to
learn better with a programed text mode than
65
with an audiovisual mode.
7. A positive correlation exists between
general aptitude and achievement.
8. Students with low general aptitude appear
to learn better with an audiovisual mode
than with a programed text mode.
66
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study was to determine if
either of two individualized instructional strategies
could be found to relate to any of various aptitude
and ability variables of subjects in a sample population
of Army air defense trainees. This chapter will present
the methods and procedures utilized in the study.
The following sections will be presented: a
statement of the hypotheses, the experimental design,
the experimental variables, the dependent variables,
the sample population, the treatment groups, the
learning task, the measurement instruments, the field
procedures, and the statistical analysis techniques
which were used to evaluate the data.
Statement of the Hypotheses
Following are the hypotheses which were addressed
by this study.
Hypotheses I through IV address the anxiety
measure:
I. The written posttest scores of the low
anxiety subjects will be significantly
higher than the written posttest scores
67
of the high anxiety subjects.
II. The hands-on test scores of the low anxiety
subjects will be significantly higher than
the hands-on test scores of the high
anxiety subjects.
III. The written posttest scores of the high
anxiety subjects assigned to Treatment AV
will be significantly lower than the
written posttest scores of the high anxiety
subjects assigned to Treatment CC.
IV. The hands-on test scores of the high
anxiety subjects assigned to Treatment AV
will be significantly lower than the
hands-on test scores of the high anxiety
subjects assigned to Treatment CC.
Hypotheses V through VIII address the ability
measure:
V. The written posttest scores of the subjects
with low pretest scores will be signifi
cantly lower than the written posttest
scores of the subjects with high pretest
scores.
VI. The hands-on test scores of the subjects
with low pretest scores will be signifi
cantly lower than the hands-on test scores
68
of the subjects with high pretest scores.
VII. The written posttest scores of the subjects
with low mechanical maintenance scores
will be significantly lower than the
written posttest scores of the subjects
with high mechanical maintenance scores.
VIII. The hands-on test scores of the subjects
with low mechanical maintenance scores
will be significantly lower than the
hands-on test scores of the subjects with
high mechanical maintenance scores.
Hypotheses IX and X address the media preference
measure:
IX. The written posttest scores of the subjects
assigned to the treatment with their media
preference will be significantly higher
than the written posttest scores of the
subjects not assigned to the treatment
with their media preference.
X. The hands-on test scores of the subjects
assigned to the treatment with their media
preference will be significantly higher
than the hands-on test scores of the
subjects not assigned to the treatment
with their media preference.
69
Hypotheses XI through XIV address the spatial
perception measure:
XI. The written posttest scores of the low
spatially perceptive subjects will be
significantly lower than the written post
test scores of the high spatially per
ceptive subjects.
XII. The hands-on test scores of the low
spatially perceptive subjects will be
significantly lower than the hands-on
test scores of the high spatially
perceptive subjects.
XIII. The written posttest scores of the low
spatially perceptive subjects assigned
to Treatment AV will be significantly
lower than the written posttest scores
of the low spatially perceptive subjects
assigned to Treatment CC.
XIV. The hands-on test scores of the low
spatially perceptive subjects assigned
to Treatment AV will be significantly
lower than the hands-on test scores
of the low spatially perceptive subjects
assigned to Treatment CC.
70
Hypotheses XV through XVIII address the general
aptitude measure:
XV. The written posttest scores of the subjects
with low general technical scores will be
significantly lower than the written post
test scores of the subjects with high
general technical scores.
XVI. The hands-on test scores of the subjects
with low general technical scores will be
significantly lower than the hands-on test
scores of the subjects with high general
technical scores.
XVII. The written posttest scores of the subjects
with low general technical scores assigned
to Treatment AV will be significantly
higher than the written posttest scores
of the subjects with low general technical
scores assigned to Treatment CC.
XVIII. The hands-on test scores of the subjects
with low general technical scores assigned
to Treatment AV will be significantly
higher than the hands-on test scores of
the subjects with low general technical
scores assigned to Treatment CC.
71
Experimental Design
The research design used to conduct the present
study was a pretest-posttest control group design which
used random assignment of subjects to treatments (26).
Experimental Variables
This study measured the main and interactive
effects of several independent variables: treatment
effects (i.e., assignment to Group AV or to Group CC),
mechanical ability (as determined by a pretest instru
ment and a mechanical maintenance aptitude score),
general technical aptitude, space perception, trait
anxiety, and media match/mismatch to a subject's
expressed media preference.
Dependent Variables
The two dependent measures were the individual1s
scores on a written posttest and a "hands-on” per
formance posttest (referred to herein as the hands-on
test).
The Sample Population
The sample population consisted of thirty-eight
soldiers assigned to the Army Air Defense Center at
Fort Bliss, Texas. This researcher attempted to acquire
72
subjects representative of the type of Army trainees
likely to take CC or AV programs on the Chaparral
weapon system* This requirement eliminated from con
sideration any individuals with prior Chaparral
experience* The subjects provided for this study
were Vulcan (another piece of air defense artillery)
crewmen* The Army Air Defense School selected these
subjects because air artillery soldiers commonly
cross-train on other weapons systems for career
advancement, and the CC and AV programs are used in
such cross-training.
Table 1 presents a demographic profile of the
thirty-eight subjects completing the study. These
subjects ranged in age from seventeen to twenty-nine
years. Twenty-three of the subjects were rated Vulcan
skill level one (i.e., the lowest skill level), fourteen
were rated Vulcan skill level two, and one subject had
a Vulcan skill level three rating. The mean skill level
for the sample was 1.4. The subjects ranged in experi
ence in their own Military Occupational Speciality
(MOS). Some had as little as two months of experience,
while others had up to seventy-four months of experi
ence. Various Army pay grades also were represented
in the sample: fourteen privates (grades 1, 2, and 3),
twelve corporals (grade 4), and twelve sergeants
73
TABLE 1
DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF THE SAMPLE
ACCORDING TO TREATMENT
Group
Total
Number of
Subjects
Age in
Years
Skill
Level
Months,
in MOSd
Pay
Grade
Months
in
Service
Highest
Academic
Grade
Entire
Sample 38 22.2 1.4 28.6 3.6 35.2 11.8
CCc 19 22.0 1.3 28.9 3.6 32.5 12.0
AVd 19 22.4 1.5 28.4 3.7 37.8 11.7
aAll entries are mean values.
Yk
Military Occupational Specialty.
°Group CC is the group which received the correspondence
course program.
Group AV is the group which received the audiovisual Training
Extension Course program.
•vl
(grades 5 and 6). Most of the subjects had a high
school education, and all were male.
An equal number of subjects were assigned
randomly to each treatment. A student's t-distribution
applied to the pretest scores demonstrated (with 99.95
percent confidence) that the AV and CC subjects com
prised random samples from normal populations with
equal pretest means (Table 2). A second student's
t-distribution demonstrated (with 97.5 percent confi
dence) that the AV and CC subjects failed to score
significantly higher on the pretest than would a group
of subjects guessing randomly. These analyses,
combined with the similarity of the group scores
depicted in Table 2, suggested that the two groups
were similar and lacked knowledge about the Chaparral
at the onset of the experiment.
Treatment Groups
Based on the available research in aptitude-
treatment interaction two treatment groups, audiovisual
(AV) and correspondence course (CC), were created
corresponding to the two most popular available media
options used by the Army.
Treatment AV used an individualized audiovisual
presentation system which supported the Army's Training
75
TABLE 2
APTITUDE/ABILITY PROFILE OF THE SAMPLE
ACCORDING TO TREATMENT
Group Pretest
Trait
Anxiety
General
Technical
Mechanical
Maintenance
Spatial
Perception
Entire
Sample 18.89 37.55 94.10 95.55 10.86
ccb 19.26 35.89 93.84 90.74 11.36
AVC 18.53 39.21 94.32 100.37 10.36
aAll entries are mean values*
T _
Group CC is the group which received the correspondence
course program*
cGroup AV is the group which received the audiovisual Training
Extension Course program.
Extension Course (TEC) program. This system uses the
Beseler Cue/See device to project a super-8 filmstrip
in an endless loop cartridge while the audio portion
of the program is carried on a separate audio cassette.
In addition to carrying synchronized narration, the
audio tape also carries electronic cues that control
the advance of the film, frame-by-frame. The film's
frames can be programed to advance at normal speed, in
slow motion, or to remain fixed indefinitely. Stills,
animation, or drawings can be combined with moving
action. A unique capability of this AV system is a
programed pause which temporarily stops the program
and allows the trainee the opportunity to do a specific
task or to answer a question presented by the fixed
visual. After the trainee completes the required
action, a press of the PROCEED button advances the
program to provide immediate feedback.
Treatment CC is a programed text format which
includes both simple and detailed art and photographs.
Frequent self-graded reviews, in the form of questions
and answers, are provided. In actual Army implementa
tion the CC is used as a self-study text for which the
soldier can be awarded credit upon completion and
submission of a final examination which is graded by
the Army Institute for Professional Development.
77
The literature was reviewed to determine if a
treatment main effect was likely to suppress signifi
cant interactions. That is, might the AV's capability
to offer color, sound, and motion contribute so
significantly to learning as to reduce the present
study to, what Salomon (97) termed, research on media
as opposed to research with media.
A study by Johnson (66) compared the effective
ness of three different training strategies involving
varying degrees of imagery and fidelity. On measures
of immediate performance, retention, and transfer of
learning, the treatment with the lowest fidelity per
formed as well as the more detailed treatment. This
result was consistent with the findings by Dwyer (38)
that increased realism in visuals would not always
cause a significant increase in learning.
Neu (84) researched the usefulness of attention
gaining devices in instructional films on Navy and Army
recruits. It was demonstrated that relevant attention
gaining devices failed to improve the instructional
effectiveness of the film, and that irrelevant devices
detracted from the film's effectiveness.
Borg and Schuller (12) presented two AV TEC
programs to Army trainees. While one program exhibited
the usual embellishments, the other program utilized
78
especially prepared simplified visuals. No significant
difference resulted between the two groups on a post
test measure of achievement.
The AV in the present study incorporated sound,
color, and movement; the CC did not. However, the
literature reviewed suggested that the increased
fidelity of the AV treatment served no instructional
purpose; therefore, the two treatments were considered
comparable.
Learning Task
The course material selected for study was
Chaparral Energizing and Daily Preventive Maintenance.
The Chaparral is a self-propelled short-range air
defense guided missile system. The course exists in
the CC format as Correspondence Course AD061, and in
the AV format as Training Extension Course Series
043-441-7801-F through 043-441-7813-F, with the
omission of 043-441-7802-F. Both formats use the
same graphics and script. The criteria used for
selecting the course material were:
1. That it be free of prerequisite requirements
which could confound the present study.
2. That it be of sufficient diversification and
length to include a representative sample of
air defense artillery tasks. 7<
3. That it be free of team actions which could
complicate grading.
4. That it already exist in comparable AV and
CC formats with identical content.
The Chaparral course for this study consisted of
forty-four separate tasks (Appendix A) which could be
grouped according to Fleishman's (44) identification
scheme for perceptual-motor tasks in the following
percentages:
1. Multilimb coordination: 20 percent. (That
is, the ability to coordinate the movements
of a number of limbs simultaneously in
operating controls.)
2. Controlled precision: 5 percent. (That is,
common to tasks that require highly con
trolled and precise muscular adjustments of
controls.)
3. Response orientation: 75 percent. (That
is, general to tasks requiring rapid
selection of controls to be moved or
directions to move them in.)
Measurement Instruments
The measurement instruments used in this study
consisted of a prestudy questionnaire, a poststudy
80
questionnaire, an anxiety questionnaire, a written
pretest, a written posttest, a hands-on test, and
information taken from the Armed Services Vocational
Aptitude Battery taken by all subjects prior to Army
enlistment.
The prestudy questionnaire (Questionnaire #1)
was used, in part, to gather demographic data on the
subjects (Appendix B). It was constructed specifically
for this experiment and was reviewed by the staff of
the Army Air Defense School for military appropriateness.
The questionnaire contained one item (number nine) which
served to determine a subject*s preference for AV or CC
type instruction, although it was made clear to the
subjects that their expressed preference in no way
affected their actual assignment.
Two forms of the poststudy questionnaire
(Appendices C and D) were constructed by this
researcher, one for use by the CC group (Questionnaire
#2A) and the other for use by the AV group (Question
naire #2B). In each case a subject*s opinions were
sought on the program's effectiveness, strengths, and
weaknesses.
The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) consists
of group administered self-reporting scales for measur
ing state (A-State) and trait (A-Trait) anxiety. Only
81
the A-Trait scale was used in this study (Appendix E).
The scale consists of twenty statements directing the
subjects to describe how they feel "in general."
The normative data for the STAI are available
for large samples of college students, high school
students, psychiatric patients, and others. Spielberger
et al. (115) reported that the test-retest correlations
for the A-Trait scale ranged from .73 for males after
104 days to .84 for males after one hour. In addition,
the alpha coefficient for the A-Trait scale for high
school males was .89 (as computed by Formula K-R 20).
The validity of the A-Trait scale was established
by correlations with other anxiety scales and ranged
from .58 to .79. In addition, extensive use of the
scale in studies at Florida State University supported
it as a valid instrument of trait anxiety measurement
(115).
In the present study a written pretest instrument
was administered to the subjects during the orientation
to the experiment. It consisted of fifty multiple
choice questions, each with a correct answer and two
distractors. The test, which was constructed and
validated as part of the Army correspondence course
program, is currently used as the official posttest to
the Chaparral correspondence course. As such, it
82
provides a wide and detailed measure of a trainee!s
knowledge about the Chaparral system. IBM optically
scanned answer sheets were used to assist in the
scoring of the test. A sample of the pretest is
presented in Appendix F.
A written posttest instrument was administered
to each subject as he completed each of the twelve
lessons in the Chaparral program. The twelve section
test consisted of a total of 123 multiple choice
questions, each with a correct answer and two dis-
tractors. This test also was constructed and validated
as part of the Army correspondence course program and
is currently used as the official end-of-section tests
in the Chaparral correspondence course. Each section
of the test contained about ten questions which
addressed the stated behavioral objectives for the
corresponding section of the program. An IBM answer
sheet was used to assist in the grading. A sample of
the written posttest appears in Appendix G.
A hands-on posttest instrument was administered
to each subject each time he completed groupings of
three successive lessons of the Chaparral program.
The total four section test consisted of 124 separate
actions that the trainee had to perform, and for which
he was graded either PASS or FAIL by an observing
83
subject matter expert (SME). The 124 actions were
fully described and printed on checksheets which were
provided as study aids for the subjects* A subject's
raw score grade on the hands-on test corresponded to
the number of PASS grades received. These raw score
grades were converted to z-scores to control for varying
SME standards and biases. A sample of the hands-on
test appears in Appendix H.
Each subject's Army personnel record was assessed
for specific Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
(ASVAB) scores. This test battery has been used by all
the Armed Services since 1974 to select and classify
enlistees for the military services. The ASVAB contains
twelve group administered multiple choice tests which
are reported individually, and in combination to form
six composite factors. Total testing time for the
ASVAB is two hours and forty-five minutes. The follow
ing seven ASVAB test scores were used in the present
study. The test times are shown in parentheses.
1. Word Knowledge— thirty questions on the
meaning of selected words (ten minutes);
2. Arithmetic Reasoning— twenty problems on
the reasoning required to perform arithmetic
processes (twenty minutes);
84
3. Mathematics Knowledge— twenty problems on
the application of learned mathematics
principles (twenty minutes);
4. Electronic Information— thirty questions on
the identification or application of elec
trical or electronic knowledge (fifteen
minutes);
5. Shop Information— twenty questions on
knowledge and familiarity with tools and
practices in shop activities (eight minutes);
6. Automotive Information— twenty questions on
knowledge and familiarity with the maintenance
and repair of automotive equipment (ten
minutes);
7. Space Perception— twenty problems which
involve the visualization and manipulation
of objects in space (twelve minutes).
Since the Army had only recently maintained
records of individual test scores, the space perception
measure was available for only twenty-two of the thirty-
eight subjects in the present study. The other measures
were combined variously (6) into composite scores
determined through statistical factor analysis tech
niques to reveal specific abilities. The following
composites were available for all subjects and were
85
used in the present study:
1. General Technical (GT)— measures the ability
to deal with verbal and quantitative con
cepts. The composite is a combination of
the Word Knowledge and Arithmetic Reasoning
tests. This measure was used to test
hypotheses related to each subjectfs
general aptitude.
2. Mechanical Maintenance (MM)— measures
understanding of information relevant
to electrical principles and related
knowledge of automotive and shop practices.
The composite is a combination of the
Mathematics Knowledge, Electronic Informa
tion, Shop Information, and Automotive
Information tests. Although considered an
aptitude measure, the task specific nature
of the questions comprising this composite
enabled it to be used as an ability measure
in this study.
Measures of reliability of the ASVAB tests were
determined from a stratified sample of 610 individuals
drawn from the administration of the ASVAB to 1,500
enlistment candidates throughout the United States.
The estimates of reliability using K-R Formula 20
86
were as follows:
Test Name Reliability
Word Knowledge .91
Arithmetic Reasoning .84
Space Perception .80
Mathematics Knowledge .80
Electronics Information .84
Shop Information .82
Automotive Information .86
The Armed Forces Vocational Testing Group con
ducted validation studies of the ASVAB by comparing
its composite scores to end-of-course grades in fifty
vocational/technical courses. A multiple linear
regression technique obtained multiple R's significant
at the .05 percent level ranging from .31 to .68 (6).
In similar studies conducted by the Air Force
Human Resources Laboratory on a sample of 8,151 new
enlistees assigned to forty-six different Air Force
technical training courses, validity coefficients
relating ASVAB composite scores to end-of-course grades
ranged from .50 to .70, with a median value of .61 (6).
Validity studies of the individual ASVAB tests
were equally high. One study, using twelfth grade
males, compared the ASVAB with the Differential Aptitude
Test (DAT) and the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB).
The highest correlations of individual tests on the
three aptitude batteries were reported (6) as follows:
87
Highest DAT Highest GATB
ASVAB Test Correlation Correlation
Word Knowledge *69 .69
Arithmetic Reasoning .86 .72
Space Perception .81 .69
Mathematics Knowledge .87 .75
Electronics Information .66 .61
Shop Information .59 .57
Automotive Information .53 .42
Field Procedures
The implementation of the actual experiment
required four student contact days commencing 24 March
1980. The subjects received an orientation and were
administered the pretest, Questionnaire #1, and the
Trait-Anxiety Questionnaire. Afterwards a random
assignment procedure was used to assign the subjects
to AV and CC treatment groups. The groups then were
assigned to separate learning centers for the instruc
tion portions of the study.
Group CC subjects were required to read the
first lesson in their program, to complete its self
graded feedback reviews, and to complete its end-of-
lesson written posttest. Each time a CC subject
successively completed three lessons in this manner
he was sent to the hands-on (i.e., performance) testing
area where three Chaparrals, each manned by an SME,
88
were stationed. The arriving student was assigned to
the first Chaparral available for testing. Although
the SME's were denied knowledge of the student's group
membership, the hands-on test results were adjusted to
eliminate the effect of unequal SME grading standards.
After completing a hands-on test the trainee returned
to the learning center to continue his instruction.
The process was repeated until all twelve written and
all four hands-on tests were completed.
The AV subjects were required to listen/watch
each of the lessons in their program, to complete the
same self-graded feedback reviews, and to complete the
same end-of-lesson written tests at the conclusion of
each of the twelve lessons. Similarly, each time an
AV subject completed three lessons he, too, was sent
to the hands-on testing area and tested in the same
manner as the CC subjects described above. The AV
subjects repeated the process until they completed
their twelve written and four hands-on tests.
At the conclusion of the experiment all subjects
completed a treatment specific version of Questionnaire
#2 and were dismissed. Every effort was made to protect
the confidentiality of the subjects participating in the
study.
The field procedures used in this study are
diagramed in Figure 1.
89
QUESTIONNAIRE #1
ANXIETY QUESTIONNAIRE
PRETEST
CC Lesson 1
Written Posttest 1
AV Lesson 1
Written Posttest 1
CC Lesson 2
Written Posttest 2
AV Lesson 2
Written Posttest 2
CC Lesson 3
Written Posttest 3
AV Lesson 3
Written Posttest 3
Hands-On Test 1 Hands-On Test 1
CC Lesson 4
Written Posttest 4
AV Lesson 4
Written Posttest 4
CC Lesson 5
Written Posttest 5
AV Lesson 5
Written Posttest 5
CC Lesson 6
Written Posttest 6
AV Lesson 6
Written Posttest 6
Hands-On Test 2 Hands-On Test 2
CC Lesson 12
Written Posttest 12
AV Lesson 12
Written Posttest 12
Questionnaire #2A Questionnaire #2B
Figure 1
Field Procedures
90
Statistical Analyses
The data were collected by hand from each sub
ject's personnel records, the two questionnaires, the
pretest, the written posttest, the hands-on test, and
the anxiety inventory. The raw data from the hands-on
tests were converted to z-scores based on the total of
all grades awarded by each SME for each hands-on test.
For example, all the subjects who were tested by SME #2
on hands-on test #4 were grouped for z-score conversions.
This conversion was found to be necessary due to the
variability of SME grading standards on the hands-on
tests.
The achievement data for the written posttests
and hands-on tests were divided into groups using the
median split technique. In this manner "low" and "high"
groups were created for each individual difference
measure. Where necessary, the data also were divided
by treatment assignment.
The median split assignment, although arbitrary,
served to identify population samples of sufficient
size as to make practical any media prescription tech
nique generated by the present study.
91
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter will present the results of the
study. The following sections are presented: analysis
of the data, presentation of data relevant to the
hypotheses, discussion of the hypotheses, presentation
of supplemental findings, and a summary.
Analysis of the Data
The data were divided using a median split of
the independent variables to create groups characterized
by low and high levels of anxiety, pretest score,
mechanical ability, spatial perception, and general
aptitude. The variable media preference was used to
dichotomize the subjects into those who received their
preferred mode (matched) and those who did not (mis
matched). Treatment assignment was used to divide data
relevant to specific hypotheses. Separate analyses
were performed for the written posttest results and
for the hands-on test results. A stepwise regression
procedure was performed and a correlation matrix was
generated to determine the relative variances accounted
for by the individual variables.
92
Student's t-tests were used to analyze the data
relevant to the hypotheses. The level of significance
established for the statistical tests used in this
study was = .05.
The data contained in the tables which follow
will be discussed relative to the hypotheses (pages
67-71).
Presentation of the Data Relevant
to the Hypotheses
Two types of hypotheses were offered in this
study. The first type hypothesized superior achievement
on the written posttests and hands-on tests for learners
possessing certain values of the individual difference
measures. Specifically, it was anticipated that learn
ers characterized by low anxiety, or high pretest
scores, or high mechanical ability, or high general
aptitude, or high spatial perception, or matched to
their media preference would achieve significantly
higher scores on both dependent measures than learners
not so characterized. Such were found for the indi
vidual difference measures of anxiety, pretest scores,
mechanical ability, and general aptitude. As had been
hypothesized, these measures were associated with
achievement.
93
Table 3 presents the data used to test these
hypotheses and the results of the student's t-tests.
For example, the table shows that when the median split
technique was used to divide the sample into groups of
nineteen low anxiety subjects and nineteen high anxiety
subjects, the following were obtained for the written
posttest achievement results:
1. The low anxiety group had a mean of 96.47
and a standard deviation of 12.24.
2. The high anxiety group had a mean of 87.37
and a standard deviation of 15.24.
3. A student's t-test applied to these data
yielded a t-statistic of 2.03, which made
Hypothesis I tenable at the .05 level of
significance.
Table 3 can be read in a similar manner for both the
written posttest and hands-on test results for each of
the individual difference measures used in the present
study.
The other type of hypotheses addressed an
anticipated superior achievement on the written post
tests and hands-on tests for learners characterized
by high anxiety or low spatial perception assigned to
Treatment CC, and for learners with low general apti
tude assigned to Treatment AV. However, none these
94
TABLE 3
GROUP MEANS (X), STANDARD DEVIATIONS (S), HYPOTHESES ADDRESSED (H),
AND VALUES OF STUDENT'S t-TESTS (t) USED TO COMPARE SUBJECTS'
ACHIEVEMENT WHEN GROUPED BY VARIOUS
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE MEASURES
Written Posttest
Achievement
Hands-On Test
Achievement
Groupa Identity X S t H X S t H
Anxiety
Low
High
96.47
87.37
12.24
15.24
2.03* 1
1.53
-1.69
2.03
3.43
3.53* 2
Pretest
Low
High
86.42
97.42
16.55
9.38
2.52* 5
-1.52
1.37
3.57
2.05
3.06* 6
Mechanical Ability
Low
High
82.21
101.63
13.29
7.08
5.62* 7
-1.77
1.61
3.49
1.79
3.76* 8
Media Preference
Matched
Mismatched
93.41
89.88
14.05
15.07
.74 9
- .18
.07
3.47
2.84
.23 10
Spatial Perception
Low
High
86.09
88.45
12.89
16.66
.37 11
-1.70
- .79
3.83
2.84
.63 12
General Aptitude
Low
High
87.42
96.42
13.61
14.07
2.00* 15
-1.53
1.38
3.47
2.20
3.08* 16
*p .05
aEach group contained nineteen subjects.
hypotheses was found to be tenable. Table 4 presents
the results of the student's t-tests addressing these
hypotheses. This table is read in the same manner as
Table 3.
Discussion of Hypotheses
Using the data collected by this study, an
analysis of the hypotheses, listed on pages 67-71, was
conducted.
An analysis of the data in Table 3 indicated
that the written posttest scores of the low anxiety
subjects were significantly higher than the written
posttest scores of the high anxiety subjects; therefore,
Hypothesis I was accepted.
An analysis of the data in Table 3 indicated
that the hands-on test scores of the low anxiety sub
jects were significantly higher than the hands-on
test scores of the high anxiety subjects; therefore,
Hypothesis II was accepted.
An analysis of the data in Table 4 indicated
that there was no significant difference between the
written posttest scores of the high anxiety subjects
assigned to Treatment AV and the written posttest scores
of the high anxiety subjects assigned to Treatment CC;
therefore, Hypothesis III was rejected.
96
TABLE 4
GROUP MEANS (X), STANDARD DEVIATIONS (S), GROUP SIZE (n), HYPOTHESES
ADDRESSED (H) , AND VALUES OF STUDENT’S t-TESTS (t) USED TO COMPARE
SUBJECTS’ ACHIEVEMENT WHEN GROUPED BY TREATMENTS
Written Posttest
Achievement
Hands-On Test
Achievement
a
Group Identity (n) X S t H X S t H
High Anxiety
AV Treatment
CC Treatment
(12)
( 7)
91.25
80.71
15.17
13.91
1.52 3
-1.86
-1.40
4.13
1.96
.28 4
Low Spatial
Perception
AV Treatment
CC Treatment
( 8)
(5)
89.00
83.00
12.25
11.47
.87 13
-3.05
- .53
4.22
1.84
1.24 14
Low General
Aptitude
AV Treatment
CC Treatment
(10)
( 9)
91.70
82.67
15.08
10.59
1.52 17
-2.19
- .80
4.36
2.14
.88 18
*p .05 (Note: No significant t-statistics were found.)
aTreatraent hypotheses involved only subject groups characterized by
high anxiety, or low spatial perception, or low general aptitude.
C D
An analysis of the data in Table 4 indicated
that there was no significant difference between the
hands-on test scores of the high anxiety subjects
assigned to Treatment AV and the hands-on test scores
of the high anxiety subjects assigned to Treatment CC;
therefore, Hypothesis IV was rejected.
An analysis of the data in Table 3 indicated
that the written posttest scores of the subjects with
low pretest scores were significantly lower than the
written posttest scores of the subjects with high pre
test scores; therefore, Hypothesis V was accepted.
An analysis of the data in Table 3 indicated
that the hands-on test scores of the subjects with low
pretest scores were significantly lower than the hands-on
test scores of the subjects with high pretest scores;
therefore, Hypothesis VI was accepted.
An analysis of the data in Table 3 indicated
that the written posttest scores of the subjects with
low mechanical maintenance scores were significantly
lower than the written posttest scores of the subjects
with high mechanical maintenance scores; therefore,
Hypothesis VII was accepted.
An analysis of the data in Table 3 indicated
that the hands-on test scores of the subjects with low
mechanical maintenance scores were significantly lower
98
than the hands-on test scores of the subjects with high
mechanical maintenance scores; therefore, Hypothesis
VIII was accepted.
An analysis of the data in Table 3 indicated
that there was no significant difference between the
written posttest scores of the subjects assigned to the
treatment with their media preference and the written
posttest scores of the subjects not assigned to the
treatment with their media preference; therefore,
Hypothesis IX was rejected.
An analysis of the data in Table 3 indicated
that there was no significant difference between the
hands-on test scores of the subjects assigned to the
treatment with their media preference and the hands-on
test scores of the subjects not assigned to the treat
ment with their media preference; therefore, Hypothesis
X was rejected.
An analysis of the data in Table 3 indicated
that there was no significant difference between the
written posttest scores of the low spatially perceptive
subjects and the written posttest scores of the high
spatially perceptive subjects; therefore, Hypothesis XI
was rejected.
An analysis of the data in Table 3 indicated
that there was no significant difference between the
99
hands-on test scores of the low spatially perceptive
subjects and the hands-on test scores of the high
spatially perceptive subjects; therefore, Hypothesis
XII was rejected.
An analysis of the data in Table 4 indicated
that there was no significant difference between the
written posttest scores of the low spatially perceptive
subjects assigned to Treatment AV and the written post
test scores of the low spatially perceptive subjects
assigned to Treatment CC; therefore, Hypothesis XIII
was rejected.
An analysis of the data in Table 4 indicated
that there was no significant difference between the
hands-on test scores of the low spatially perceptive
subjects assigned to Treatment AV and the hands-on test
scores of the low spatially perceptive subjects assigned
to Treatment CC; therefore, Hypothesis XIV was rejected.
An analysis of the data in Table 3 indicated
that the written posttest scores of the subjects with
low general technical scores were significantly lower
than the written posttest scores of the subjects with
high general technical scores; therefore, Hypothesis XV
was accepted.
An analysis of the data in Table 3 indicated
that the hands-on test scores of the subjects with low
100
general technical scores were significantly lower than
the hands-on test scores of the subjects with high
general technical scores; therefore, Hypothesis XVI
was accepted.
An analysis of the data in Table 4 indicated
that there was no significant difference between the
written posttest scores of the subjects with low general
technical scores assigned to Treatment AV and the
written posttest scores of the subjects with low general
technical scores assigned to Treatment CC; therefore,
Hypothesis XVII was rejected.
An analysis of the data in Table 4 indicated
that there was no significant difference between the
hands-on test scores of the subjects with low general
technical scores assigned to Treatment AV and the
hands-on test scores of the subjects with low general
technical scores assigned to Treatment CC; therefore,
Hypothesis XVIII was rejected.
Presentation of Supplemental Findings
A correlation coefficients matrix was constructed
as presented in Table 5. The negative signs appearing
with the anxiety coefficients reflected the inverse
effect that anxiety had on performance. Media prefer
ence and treatment assignment were correlated with the
101
TABLE 5
CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS MATRIX
Written
Test
Hands-
On Test
Pre
test Anxiety
Gen
eral
Tech
nical
Mechani
cal
Mainte
nance
Media
Prefer
ence
Treat
ment
Written Test 1 .65 .42 -.38 .39 .63 .12 .32
Hands-On Test 1 .39 -.50 .42 .53 .04 .12
Pretest 1 -.15 .27 .15
Anxiety- 1 -.32 -.27
General Technical 1 .35
Mechanical
Maintenance 1
Media Preference 1
Treatment 1
H
O
to
dependent measures only as other correlations lacked
physical interpretation.
A stepwise regression analysis for the written
posttest results appears in Table 6. It may be seen
that the mechanical maintenance score accounted for
the majority of the posttest variance (40 percent),
with the remaining variables contributing very little
unique variance (i.e., 2 to 5 percent). Table 7
presents the same analysis for the hands-on test.
While here, too, the mechanical maintenance score
accounted for the largest portion of variance, the
contribution of anxiety was more pronounced.
Table 8 presents the results of the student's
t-tests performed on the treatment effects (i.e., AV
versus CC) for the entire sample (N = 38). Separate
analyses are reported for the written posttest and
the hands-on test results. An analysis of the data
in Table 8 indicated that the two treatments were
equally effective in producing achievement as measured
by the hands-on test. However, a significant differ
ence was found which favored the AV treatment on the
written posttest results.
Figure 2 presents the results of Questionnaire
#2A (i.e., the questionnaire given to the CC group).
Figure 3 presents the results of Questionnaire #2B
103
TABLE 6
STEPWISE REGRESSION RESULTS FOR
WRITTEN POSTTEST ACHIEVEMENT
Variable Multiple R R2
R2
Change
Mechanical Maintenance
Score .63 .40 .40
Anxiety .67 .44 .05
General Technical Score .68 .46 .02
Treatmenta .71 .50 .04
aTreatment constrained to enter as last variable*
104
TABLE 7
STEPWISE REGRESSION RESULTS FOR
HANDS-ON TEST ACHIEVEMENT
Variable Multiple R R2
* ■ >
R
Change
Mechanical Maintenance
Score .53 .28 .28
Anxiety- .65 .42 .14
General Technical Score .67 .45 .03
Treatmenta .70 .50 •
0
01
aTreatment constrained to enter as last variable.
105
TABLE 8
GROUP MEANS (X), STANDARD DEVIATIONS (S),
AND VALUES OF STUDENT'S t-TESTS (t) USED
TO COMPARE SUBJECTS' ACHIEVEMENT WHEN
GROUPED BY TREATMENT
Groupa Identity
Written Posttest
Achievement
Hands-On Test
Achievement
X S t X S t
Treatment
Assignment
CC 87.32 13.47 2 Q6* .31 2.56 ?3
AV 96.53 14.12 -.46 3.81
aEach group contained nineteen subjects.
*p .05
106
Following are the results obtained from
Questionnaire #2A:
If you had to receive more training, would
you like to use the correspondence course
program text format again?
Yes— 17 No— 2
How well did the programed text prepare you
for the task?
Not well— 0 Very well— 14 Somewhat— 5
How did you find the teaching level (difficulty)
of the programed text?
Too low— 2 Too high— G About right— 17
How often did you reread the material in the
programed text to gain a better understanding
of it?
Almost always— 1 Never— 2 A few times— 16
Figure 2
Results of Questionnaire #2A
107
Following are the results obtained from
Questionnaire #2B:
If you had to receive more training, would you
like to use the Training Extension Course (TEC)
format again:
Yes— 18 No— 1
How well did the TEC presentations prepare
you for the task?
Not well— p Very well— 15 Somewhat— 4
How did you find the TEC presentation speed?
Too slow— 0 Too fast— 1 About right— 18
Answer the following about the TEC presentations
Was the use of color helpful? No— 1 Yes— 18
Was the use of motion helpful? No— 0 Yes— 19
Was the use of sound effects
helpful? No— O Yes— 19
Was the use of music helpful? No— 10 Yes— 9
How did you find the teaching level (difficulty)
of the TEC presentations?
Too low— 0 Too high— 0 About right— 19
Would you have found it helpful to be able to
rewind the TEC presentation whenever you wanted
to so that you could review certain sections of
the material (without having to see the whole
program over)?
Yes— 15 No— 3
Figure 3
Results of Questionnaire #2B
108
(i.e., the questionnaire given to the AV group).
In summary, an analysis of the data collected
in this study confirmed the following hypothesized
relationships:
1. Low anxiety subjects performed significantly
better than high anxiety subjects.
2. Subjects with high prior knowledge (i.e.,
high pretest scores) performed significantly
better than subjects with low prior knowledge.
3. Subjects with high mechanical ability per
formed significantly better than subjects
with low mechanical ability.
4. Subjects with high general aptitude performed
significantly better than subjects with low
general aptitude.
Supplemental findings indicated that over 40
percent of the variance of the dependent measures was
accounted for by the mechanical maintenance score and
the anxiety score. The remaining variables accounted
for very little of the variance of the dependent
measures. In particular, a subject's treatment assign
ment accounted for 5 percent or less of the variance
on each of the dependent measures (after the variance
due to mechanical ability, anxiety, and general ability
had been accounted for).
109
The results of Questionnaire #2A and Question
naire #2B were presented. Almost all subjects
indicated that they would like to receive more
programs using the same format as the one to which
they had been assigned.
110
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter contains a summary of the investiga
tion, draws conclusions based on the analysis of the
experimental data, and offers some recommendations for
further research.
Summary
Designers of instructional materials are
commonly required to select delivery systems (media)
which effectively address task, learner, and environ
mental considerations. While formal media selection
models have been developed, these models have failed
to gain popularity as effective aids to the media
selection process (14, 114). This failure prompted
the consideration of alternative methodologies to
accomplish this task, one approach being aptitude-
treatment interaction (94).
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to investigate
the relationships between several aptitude/ability
measures and the effectiveness of two instructional
delivery systems currently available in the military.
If a disordinal interaction of aptitude/ability and
111
media was found, it would support the differential
assignment of learners to alternative instructional
treatments. Also, since the costs of delivery systems
vary substantially, findings of an ordinal interaction,
or the absence of an interaction, could still influence
media selection.
Methodology
Measures of general aptitude, mechanical mainte
nance aptitude, and spatial perception were obtained
from the soldiers' personnel records. In addition,
measures of anxiety, media preference, and pretest
knowledge were obtained on each subject in the study
period. A review of the literature had indicated that
one, or more, of these independent measures was likely
to interact with the treatment alternatives, especially
if the treatments differed in the cognitive processing
strategies they required.
In addition to assessing each subject's ASVAB
scores, a widely used anxiety questionnaire (115), a
task specific pretest, and a questionnaire to determine
media preference were administered to each subject.
Subjects then were assigned randomly to one of two
treatments: audiovisual treatment (AV) or programed
text correspondence course treatment (CC). The contents
112
of the two programs were identical and addressed the
energizing and daily preventive maintenance checks
and services of the Chaparral air defense weapon system.
The final number of subjects for the study was thirty-
eight, all males, with equal numbers assigned to each
treatment. A pretest-posttest experimental design was
used.
£ach subject completed a series of written post
tests and hands-on performance tests during the study.
The written posttests were multiple choice tests
created from the end-of-lesson tests of the current
Chaparral course. The hands-on tests consisted of a
task checklist with grades of PASS or FAIL assigned for
each task. A subject's total score on the hands-on
test equated to the number of PASS grades accumulated.
The data were analyzed by the use of t-statistic
techniques. A median split was used to divide the
aptitude/ability measures into low and high values.
Similarly, media preference was dichotomized by those
subjects who received their choice of media, and those
subjects who did not receive their choice of media.
Findings on Anxiety
It was hypothesized that low anxiety subjects
would score significantly higher on both dependent
measures than the high anxiety subjects. The data
113
collected supported this hypothesis* Anxiety correlated
-•38 with the written posttest results and accounted for
almost 5 percent of the unique variance in the written
posttest scores (when entered second in a regression
analysis). Anxiety correlated -.50 with the hands-on
test results and accounted for almost 14 percent of the
unique variance in the hands-on test scores (when
entered second in a regression analysis). The strength
of these findings was considerable and served to rank
anxiety as the second strongest variable able to
predict achievement (i.e., after mechanical aptitude).
Findings on Mechanical
Ability
It was hypothesized that subjects with high
mechanical ability would score significantly higher
on both dependent measures than subjects with low
mechanical ability. The findings of this study sup
ported this expectation. The mechanical maintenance
score correlated .63 with the written posttest scores
and accounted for 40 percent of the unique variance
in the written posttest scores. The mechanical mainte
nance score correlated .53 with the hands-on test
scores and accounted for 28 percent of the unique
variance in the hands-on test scores. These findings
served to identify the mechanical maintenance score
114
as the variable most strongly predictive of achievement
in the present study.
It was hypothesized that subjects with high
pretest scores would score significantly higher on
both dependent measures than subjects with low pretest
scores. The data collected also supported this expecta
tion • While the correlations between the pretest score
and achievement were rather high (i.e., .42 for the
written posttest and .39 for the hands-on test), the
correlation between the pretest scores and the mechanical
maintenance scores was low (i.e., .15). Thus, while
each of the two measures of mechanical ability was
independent (i.e., the pretest scores and the mechanical
maintenance scores), both were good predictors of
learner achievement in the present study.
Findings on Media
Preference
Providing a subject with his selected choice of
media failed to have an effect on the subject's subse
quent achievement.
Findings on Spatial
Perception
Spatial perception was not found to be signifi
cantly related to achievement.
115
Findings on General
Aptitude
It was hypothesized that subjects with high
general aptitude would score significantly higher on
both dependent measures than subjects with low general
aptitude. This expectation was supported by the
results of the present study. The general technical
score correlated .39 with the written posttest scores,
but contributed very little unique variance to these
scores (i.e., 2 percent when entered third in a
regression analysis). The general technical score
correlated .42 with the hands-on test scores, but also
accounted for very little unique variance in these
scores when similarly entered (i.e., 3 percent). Thus,
while the simple correlations for general aptitude
were quite high, this measure added little to the
prediction of achievement after the mechanical mainte
nance score and anxiety had been considered.
Findings on Treatment
Assignment
This study was interested primarily in deter
mining if treatment assignment interacted with various
individual difference measures to affect achievement
gains. Of those treatment effects that were hypothe
sized (i.e., the advantage of assigning high anxiety
or low spatially perceptive subjects to Treatment CC,
116
and the advantage of assigning subjects with low
general technical scores to Treatment AV), none
reached statistical significance. In fact, in several
instances the results were opposite to those that had
been expected.
Treatment assignment correlated .32 with the
written posttest results and accounted for 4 percent
of the unique variance in the written posttest scores
(when entered fourth in a regression analysis).
Treatment assignment correlated .12 with the hands-on
test results and accounted for 5 percent of the unique
variance in the hands-on test scores when similarly
considered.
A student’s t-test revealed a significant
treatment main effect favoring the AV treatment for
the written posttest results. However, neither treat
ment produced significantly higher scores on the
hands-on test.
Conclusions
The findings of this study were consistent with
earlier research which found AV TEC and a comparable
programed text to be equally effective (33, 94). The
presentation mode, per se, might be less important
than would be the incorporation of elements of sound
117
instructional design (i.e., organized sequences, feed
back, and clarity of presentation). If these elements
were present then any instructional mode would be
likely to be effective.
The AV treatment was significantly more effective
on the written posttest measure. However, considering
the performance orientation of the military, the hands-on
test may have been a more valid predictor of a subject's
true learning. In any case, the treatment effect
accounted for so little variance that even a significant
effect was, for all practical purposes, a minimal one.
A variety of reasons could account for this
study*s failure to detect any significant treatment
effects: (1) the sample size might have been too small
to have uncovered significant effects, (2) the cognitive
processing demands required of both programs might have
been too much alike, or (3) both treatments may indeed
have been equally effective.
Recommendations
The results of this study suggested that serious
consideration be given to the planned expansion of the
AV TEC mode of instruction. While a significant
advantage was found for the AV TEC over the programed
text CC mode, this effect was limited to the written
118
posttest only. As was discussed previously, treatment
assignment accounted for only about 3 percent of the
observed variance in the written posttest scores after
the variance due to mechanical ability, anxiety, and
general aptitude had been accounted for.
AV TEC has several disadvantages for use as an
instructional delivery system:
1. It is more expensive than a corresponding
programed text. The production of an AV TEC
requires the generation of 35mm slides,
transforming the slides into a super-8mra
filmstrip, recording the narration, and
providing the synchronization pulses.
2. AV TEC requires the support of an expensive,
nonportable, sophisticated presentation
system of questioned reliability (119). It
also requires the availability of a 110 volt
power source.
3. As the Army's equipment inventories are
updated or their operating procedures
modified, the AV TEC programs would become
obsolete.
In comparison, the programed text mode:
1. Is relatively inexpensive.
2. Is field exportable and can be taken to
119
the job site to support hands-on instruction.
3. Can be easily and inexpensively revised.
4. Requires no special display equipment.
As a result of this study it is recommended
that:
1. The Army support a larger investigation
using a variety of different tasks to expose
the relative benefits of AV TEC and the
programed text modes.
2. An analysis be conducted of the cost
effectiveness of the two delivery systems.
3. The results of the analysis be used to
direct the Army's procurement policy on
instructional delivery systems.
The results of this study also suggested that
a measure of trait anxiety might help to predict a
learner's achievement in situations similar to the one
employed in the present study. The addition of such
a measure to the ASVAB might increase the battery's
usefulness.
120
— _____
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Sieber, J. E., O'Neil, H. F., & Tobias, S.
Anxiety, learning, and instruction. Hillsdale,
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.,
1977.
Silver, L. A., Bennik, F. D., Butler, A. K., &
Benesch, M. A. TEC media alternatives for the
FY 78-83 period: delivery systems data base.
ARI Technical Report P-78-4. Alexandria,
Virginia: Army Research Institute, December
1978.
133
108.
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Singer, R. N. , 8c Gerson, R. F. Cognitive
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acquisition of motor skills. ARI Technical
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Singer, R. N. , Gerson, R. F., 8c Kim, K. Informa
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Singer, R. N. , Gerson, R. F. , 8c Ridsdale, S.
A conceptual orientation to the study of
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TR-78-TH-9. Alexandria, Virginia: Army
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Snow, R. Individual differences and instructional
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Snow, R. E. Research on media and aptitudes.
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Snow, R. E . , 8c Salomon, G. Aptitudes and instruc
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136
APPENDIX A
TASKS ADDRESSED BY THE TRAINING IN THIS STUDY
137
TASKS ADDRESSED BY THE TRAINING IN THIS STUDY
Lesson One
Perform the preenergizing checks at the master control panel.
Perform the preenergizing checks in the gunner's compartment.
Check the azimuth and elevation brakes.
Start the MPU - normal method.
Start the MPU - emergency method.
Place the MPU in automatic operation.
Energize the mount.
Energize the mount conditioning system.
Perform the communications check.
Erect/retract the mount.
Perform the deenergizing procedures in the gunner's compartment.
Perform the deenergizing procedures at the master control panel
Lesson Two
Prepare the DA Form 2404 for the daily checks.
Perform the fuel tanks check.
Check for gasoline and oil leakage in the MPU compartment,
Perform the fire extinguisher checks.
Perform the MPU oil level checks.
Check the fuel selector valve.
Check for oil leakage in the rear electrical compartment.
Perform the missile storage compartment checks.
Lesson Three
Perform the crew equipment compartment checks.
Perform the base secure checks.
Perform the launch rails check.
Perform the loaded missiles check.
Perform the dome protectors and safety streamers checks
Perform the gunner's compartment environment checks.
Lesson Four
Perform the azimuth and elevation movement checks.
Perform the HPU operation checks.
Perform the LOAD/STOW switch operation checks.
Perform the HOLD FIRE lamp checks.
Perform the AZIMUTH OK and ELEVATION OK lamps checks
Perform the erect/retract operation checks.
Perform an interlock switch adjustment.
138
APPENDIX B
QUESTIONNAIRE #1
139
CHAPARRAL STUDY, QUESTIONNAIRE #1
Please complete the following. All information will be kept CONFIDENTIAL.
1. ID Number: ___________
2. Age to nearest year: ____
3. Current Military Occupational Speciality (MOS): ____________
4. Number of months spent in this MOS: _________
5. Current Pay-Grade: E______
6. Total Time-in-service: ___________months
7. Highest civilian school grade (or college year) finished: _______
8. Types and length of Army technical training you have had: ____
9. You will be receiving training on the energizing and daily preventive
maintenance of the Chaparral. Two different types of instructions are
available for this training. Although the format of the programs are
different, the content of the two programs is identical. Check the
one that you would prefer to use.
TEC Audio Visual. (A teaching machine— you watch the pictures on a
screen and listen to information from an audio
cassette.)
Correspondence Course. (A workbook— you see the pictures on a page
and read the information.)
140
APPENDIX C
QUESTIONNAIRE #2A
141
CHAPARRAL STUDY, QUESTIONNAIRE #2A
Please complete the following. All information will be kept CONFIDENTIAL.
1. ID Number: ____________
2. If you had to receive more training, would you like to use the
Correspondence Course Programmed Text format again?
Yes Jo
3. How well did the Programmed Text prepare you for the task?
Not Well __ Very Well_______ __ Somewhat
4. How did you find the teaching level (difficulty) of the Programmed
Text?
Too Low __ Too High________ __ About Right
5. How often did you reread the material In the Programmed Text to gain a
better understanding of it?
Almost always Never __ A few times
142
APPENDIX D
QUESTIONNAIRE #2B
143
CHAPARRAL STUDY, QUESTIONNAIRE #2B
Please complete the following. All information will be kept CONFIDENTIAL.
1. ID Number: __________
2. If you had to receive more training, would you like to use the TEC
format again?
Yes______________ __ No
3. How well did the TEC presentations prepare you for the task?
Not Well____________ Very Well __ Somewhat
4. How did you find the TEC presentation speed?
Too Slow____________ Too Fast __ About Right
5. Answer the following about the TEC presentations:
Was the use of color helpful? No Yes
Was the use of motion helpful? No Yes
Was the use of sound effects helpful? No Yes
Was the use of music helpful? No Yes
6. How did you find the teaching level (difficulty) of the TEC presentations?
Too Low__________ __ Too High __ About Right
7. Would you have found it helpful to be able to rewind the TEC presentation
whenever you wanted to so that you could review certain sections of the
material (without having to see the whole program over)?
Yes______________ __ No
144
APPENDIX E
SELF-EVALUATION (ANXIETY) QUESTIONNAIRE
145
SELF-EVALUATION Q U ESTIO N N A IRE
STAI FORM X-2
N A M E ________________________________________________________ DATE
DIRECTIONS: A number of statements which people have
used to describe themselves are given below. Read each state
ment and then blacken in the appropriate circle to the right of
the statement to indicate how you generally feel. There are no
right or wrong answers. Do not spend too much time on any
one statement but give the answer which seems to describe
how you generally feel.
22. I tire quickly .............................................................................................................
23. I feel like crying.........................................................................................................
24. I wish I could be as happy as others seem to b e ................................................
25. I am losing out on things because I can’t make up my mind soon enough ....
26. I feel rested..................................................................................................................
27. I am “calm, cool, and collected” ............................................................................
28. I feel that difficulties are piling up so that I cannot overcome th em ..........
29. I worry too much over something that really doesn’t m atter.......................
30. I am h ap p y..................................................................................................................
31. I am inclined to take things hard ........................................................................
32. I lack self-confidence ................................................................................................
33. I feel secure ...............................................................................................................
34. I try to avoid facing a crisis or difficulty.............................................................
35. I feel blue ...................................................................................................................
36. I am con ten t...............................................................................................................
37. Some unimportant thought runs through my mind and bothers m e ..........
38. I take disappointments so keenly that I can’t put them out of my mind ....
39. I am a steady person ................................................................................................
40. I get in a state of tension or turmoil as I think over my recent concerns and
C opyright < £ ) 1968 by Charles D. Spielberger. R eproduction of this test or a n y portion
thereof by a n y process w ithout w ritten perm ission of the P ublisher is prohibited.
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146
APPENDIX F
PRETEST SAMPLE
147
PRETEST NUMBER:
ARMY CORRESPONDENCE COURSE PROGRAM OF THE US ARMY AIR DEFENSE SCHOOL
EXAMINATION
ADA SUBCOURSE 61
REQUIREMENT. Solve the following m ultiple-choice ex ercises and record vour solutions on the
answ er s h e e t w ith a #2 p e n c il.
1. You are checking the ALTITUDE switch during preenergizing and see that it is set at LO. The altitude
of your Chaparral position is 4,000 feet and the ambient temperature is 65s F. Is the switch set correctly?
a. Yes.
b. No. It should be set at MED.
c. No. It should be set at HI.
2. During the preenergizing checks, make sure that the
a. MOUNT CONDITIONING switch on the LCP is at ON.
b. MODE switch on the CCP is at STANDBY.
c. MASTER POWER switch on the m aster control panel is at ON.
3. When checking the azimuth and elevation brakes during preenergizing, make sure the brake handles are
turned to the right because this is the ' position.
a. ENGAGED b. DISENGAGED c. Neither.
4. When performing the deenergizing procedure in the gunner’s compartment,
a. set the MOUNT CONDITIONING switch at HEAT if the temperature is below 40“F.
b. remove and store the gunner's sight.
c. Press the safety shields on the ARM and INTERLOCK sw itches.
5. During the energizing procedures, when you set the MASTER POWER switch at ON, make sure that the
starts to run.
structure vent fan
b. mount blower fan
c. Both of the above.
148
APPENDIX G
WRITTEN POSTTEST SAMPLE
149
WRITTEN POSTTEST SAMPLE
REQUIREMENT: Answer Questions 1 thru 12 after completing TEC program
043-441-7301 F. Mark ONLY on the answer sheet provided,
1. Which of these switches have been set properly for preenergizing?
P R E -E N E R G IZ E SE T T IN G S ?
M A S T E R P O W E R P R IM E P O W E R
ON
OFF M AN
AUTO i M AN START
\\ ' @
A
OFF
B
a. A. 451 B. 751 c . Both. 151
2. The temperature is 38° . Which of these switches have been set properly for preenergizing?
T E M P E R A T U R E I S 38°
P R E -E N E R G IZ E S E T T IN G S ?
M IS S IL E H E A T E R B R E A K E R S
LEFT RIGHT LAUNCH
STORED STORED RAILS
ON ON ON
OFF OFF OFF
a. A and C. 602 b. B. 902 i
3 . Which of these switches have been set properly for preenergizing?
P R E -E N E R G IZ E SE T T IN G S?
M O U N T C O N D IT IO N IN G
COOL
OFF
HEAT
LOW
M E D -
H IG H /
/ LOW
— MED
HIGH
a. A. 853
BLOWER I BREAKER B
H ,G H o n
MED ( M
LOW I OFF
b. B. 253
302
Neither. 553
150
APPENDIX H
HANDS-ON TEST SAMPLE
151
? h 6 £ 3‘f $ 7 V 0 e * J T S N * r A € ;
S m g :
HANDS-ON TEST SAMPLE
0 % 3 £ C T \ \ ) £ * !
Go
CREW EQUIPMENT COMPARTMENT
i Open crew equipm ent com partm ent door and cheek gas fum es. Examine lo t open air-
purifier blow dow n valve, damaged tubing, and loose air line fillings; tighten finings if
possible or notify higher m aintenance for replacement.
ft. Clean out residue uf gas. grease, dirt or other contam inants.
c. Insure the air purifier bag insulator is present and not torn or ripped. ■ !
o$T£cr\ge
b a s e s e c u r e
a. Insure that all com partm ent doors are closed and Latched.
b. Insure that lire extinguisher actuator handle has not been pulled o u t.
l a u n c h r a i l s
a. Lxamine launch raii suitaces tor chipped, blistered. or scoured paint.
^ Check the missile detent latching lever lor freedom of operation and mis&ng or
damaged com ponents: clean or notify higher m aintenance for replacem ent.
| W H H I I M |
Check umbilical cable retractor only on launch rails not loaded w ith missiles.
c. Check the umbilical cable retractor for freedom o f operation and missing or damaged
com ponents: clean ot notify higher m aintenance iot replacement.
o f t i e c n w g * 5 ~
LO A D LD MISSILES
a Inspect the m issiles on the launch rads tor evidence o f external damage, if damage is
observed, unload nm'ulc m accordance with paragraph 2-IJ and inspect in accordance
w ith paragraph 210 ,
OfcTecrwe *7
4. Unless otherw ise instructed, insure that all protective covers are installed on the missile
and that all safety streamers arc installed on the launch rails.
O f c T C c T w i t g * 1 0
G UNNER'S COMPARTMENT ENVIRONM ENT
4 Set M O UN TC ON DITIONING BREAKER (6. Tig. 2-3) to ON.
ft. Set MOUNT CONDITIONING BLOWER switch (ft) successively through LOW. MED.
and HIGH positions; remaining on each position long enough to determ ine
proper fan operation. Leave set as desired.
NOTE
The external am bient temperature must be from warm to hot for the
performance o f the air conditioner in the next step.
c. Set MOUNT CONDITIONING selector switch (4) successively through HIGH COOL,
MED COOL, LOW COOL. LOW HEAT. MED HEAT, and HIGH HEAT; remaining
on each position long enough co determ ine proper response. Leave set as desired.
d . Test defoggiitg operation by closing gunner's air control door and setting air intake
control to a wider opening. (If canopy fogging is an actual occurrence, also set
MOUNT CONDITIONING selector and BLOWER speed to next higher position.
Leave set as desued.
152
Abstract (if available)
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Furgang, Stuart Roy
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The use of individual difference measures to affect the assignment of Army trainees to media options
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