Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-qsmjn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T08:01:53.681Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Village Size and Permanence in Amazonia: Two Archaeological Examples from Brazil

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Michael J. Heckenberger ,
James B. Petersen  and
Eduardo Goés Neves
Michael J. Heckenberger
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Turlington Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
James B. Petersen
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Williams Hall, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405
Eduardo Goés Neves
Affiliation:
Museu de Arqueologia e Etnologia, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Avenida Prof. Almeida Prado, No. 1466, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Recent archaeological investigations along the lower Negro and upper Xingu Rivers in the Brazilian Amazon provide important new evidence bearing on long-standing debates about the size and permanence of Amerindian settlements in the region. Preliminary regional surveys and more in-depth study of selected large (30-50 ha) sites, particularly analyses of the associations between structural features, anthropogenically altered soils, and artifact distributions, lead us to conclude that large, permanent settlements, likely associated with fairly dense regional populations, existed prehistorically in both areas. These findings cast doubt on the view that environmental limitations prevented sedentism and demographic growth among Amerindian populations throughout much or all of the region. Specifically, we conclude that fully sedentary and relatively large populations emerged in a variety of Amazonian settings prehistorically, not necessarily correlated with the distribution of one or another narrowly defined ecological variable (e. g., high fertility soils). Thus, a critical evaluation of core concepts in Amazonian anthropology, such as the várzea/terra firme dichotomy or tropical forest culture, is advised.

Resumen

Resumen

Investigaciones arqueológicas recientes a lo largo de los ríos bajo Negro y alto Xingú, en la Amazonia brasileña, proporcionan nuevas e importantes evidencias para los prolongados debates acerca del tamaño y la permanencia de los asentamientos amerindios en la región. Relevamientos preliminares realizados en la región y estudios más profundos de sitios de 30 a 50 hectáreas, particularmente un análisis de la asociación entre rasgos estructurales, suelos antropogénicamente alterados y distribuciones de artefatos, nos llevan a concluir que estos asentamientos de gran tamaño y permanentes, probablemente asociados a poblaciones regionales bastante densas, existieron prehistóricamente en ambas áreas. estos hallazgos plantean serias dudas a la visión, sostenida por mucho tiempo, de que limitaciones medioambientales habrian impedido el sedentarismo y el crecimiento demográfico entre las poblaciones amerindias de la región. Concluímos, específicamente, que poblaciones plenamente sedentarias y relativamente amplias emergieron prehistóricamente en una variedad de escenarios amazónicos, no necesariamente correlacionadas con la distribución de ninguna variable ecológica estrechamente definida. Por consiguiente, se requiere una evaluación crítica de ciertos conceptos incorporados en la antropología amazona tales como la dicotomía valle/tierra firme o la cultura de la floresta tropical.

Type
Articles
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 10 , Issue 4 , December 1999 , pp. 353 - 376
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 1999

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Agostinho da Silva, P. 1993 Testemunhos da ocupação pré-xinguana na bacia dos formadores do Xingu. In Karl von den Steinen: um século de antropologia no Xingu, edited by V. P. Coelho, pp. 233–287. Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo.Google Scholar
Balée, W. 1989 The Culture of Amazonian Forests. In Resource Management in Amazonia: Folk and Indigenous Strategies, edited by D. A. Posey and W. Balee, pp. 1–21. Advances in Economic Botany No. 7. New York Botanical Garden, New York.Google Scholar
Balée, W. 1994 Footprints of the Forest: Ka’ apor Ethnobotany. Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Balée, W. 1995 Historical Ecology in Amazonia. In Indigenous Peoples and the Future of Amazonia: An Ecological Anthropology of an Endangered World, edited by L. E. Sponsel, pp. 97–110. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Beckerman, S. 1978 Comment on “Food Taboos, Diet, and Hunting Strategy: The Adaptation to Animals in Amazon Cultural Ecology” (Eric Ross). Current Anthropology 19:17–19.Google Scholar
Beckerman, S. 1979 The Abundance of Protein in Amazonia: A Reply to Gross. American Anthropologist 81:533–560.Google Scholar
Beckerman, S. 1991 A Amazônia estava repleta de gente em 1492? In Origens, adaptações e diversidade biológica, de homem nativo da Amazônia, edited by W. A. Neves, pp. 143–159. Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belém.Google Scholar
Beckerman, S. 1994 Hunting and Fishing in Amazonia: Hold the Answers, What are the Questions? In Amazonian Indians from Prehistory to the Present: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by A. C. Roosevelt, pp. 177–200. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Becquelin, P. 1978 The Archaeology of the Upper Xingu, Mato Grosso. Paper presented at the 77th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Becquelin, P. 1993 Arqueologia Xinguana. In Karl von den Steinen: um século de antropologia no Xingu, edited by V. P. Coelho, pp. 224–232. Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo.Google Scholar
Brochado, J. P. 1984 An Ecological Model of the Spread of Pottery and Agriculture into Eastern South America. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Brochado, J. P., and Lathtap, D. W. 1982 Amazonia. Manuscript on file, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.Google Scholar
Cameiro, R. L. 1957 Subsistence and Social Structure: An Ecological Study of the Kuikuru Indians. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Cameiro, R. L. 1960 Slash-and-Burn Agriculture: A Closer Look at its Implications for Settlement Patterns. In Men and Culture, edited by A. F. C. Wallace, pp. 229–234. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Cameiro, R. L. 1970 The Transition from Hunting to Horticulture in the Amazon Basin. Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences 3:144–48. Tokyo.Google Scholar
Cameiro, R. L. 1983 The Cultivation of Manioc among the Kuikuru of the Upper Xingu. In Adaptive Responses of Native Amazonians, edited by R. B. Hames and W. T. Vickers, pp. 65–111. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Cameiro, R. L. 1985 Slash-and-Burn Cultivation among the Kuikuru and Its Implications for Cultural Development in the Amazon Basin. In Native South Americans: Ethnology of the Least Known Continent, edited by P. Lyon, pp. 73–91. Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, Illinois.Google Scholar
Cameiro, R. L. 1986 The Ecological Basis of Amazonian Chiefdoms. Manuscript on file, Department of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, New York.Google Scholar
Cameiro, R. L. 1995 The History of Ecological Interpretations of Amazonia: Does Roosevelt Have It Right? In Indigenous Peoples and the Future of Amazonia: An Ecological Anthropology of an Endangered World, edited by L. E. Sponsel, pp. 45–65. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Clastres, P. 1977 Society against the State: Essays in Political Anthropology. Zone Books, New York.Google Scholar
DeBoer, W. R. 1981 Buffer Zones in the Cultural Ecology of Aboriginal Amazonia: An Ethnohistorical Approach. American Antiquity 46:364–377.Google Scholar
DeBoer, W.R., Kintigh, K., and Rostoker, A. 1996 Ceramic Seriation and Settlement Reoccupation in Lowland South America. Latin American Antiquity 7:263–278.Google Scholar
Denevan, W. M. 1976 The Aboriginal Population of Amazonia. In The Native Population of the Americas in 1492, edited by W. Denevan, pp. 205–234. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Denevan, W. M. 1984 Ecological Heterogeneity and Horizontal Zonation of Agriculture in the Amazon Floodplain. In Frontier Expansion in Amazonia, edited by M. Schmink and C. Wood, pp. 311–336. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Denevan, W. M. 1992a Stone vs. Metal Axes: The Ambiguity of Shifting Cultivation in Prehistoric Amazonia. Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society 20:153–165.Google Scholar
Denevan, W. M. 1992b The Pristine Myth: The Landscape of the Americas in 1492. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82:369–385.Google Scholar
Denevan, W. M. 1996 A Bluff Model of Riverine Settlement in Prehistoric Amazonia. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 86:654–681.Google Scholar
Denevan, W. M., and Padoch, C. (editors) 1988 Swidden-Fallow Agroforestry in the Peruvian Amazon. Advances in Economic Botany No. 5. New York Botanical Garden, New York.Google Scholar
Descola, P. 1996 In the Society of Nature: A Native Ecology of Amazonia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Dole, G. E. 1961/1962. A. Preliminary Consideration ot trie Preltistory of the Upper Xingu Basin. Revista do Museu Paulista n.s. XIII:399–423.Google Scholar
Eden, J. M., Bray, W., Herrera, L., and McEwan, C. 1984 Terra Preta Soils and Their Archaeological Context in the Caquetá Basin of Southeast Columbia. American Antiquity 49:125–140.Google Scholar
Eidt, R. 1984 Advances in Abandoned Settlement Analysis: Applications to Prehistoric Anthrosols in Columbia, South America. The Center for Latin America, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Fausto, C. 1992 Fragmentos de história e cultura Tupinambá: da etnologia como instrumento crítico de conhecimento etno-historico. História dos índios no Brasil, edited by M. Carneiro da Cunha, pp. 381–396. Companhia das Letras/FAPESP/SMC, São Paulo.Google Scholar
Gross, D. 1975 Protein Capture and Cultural Development in the Amazon Basin. American Anthropologist 77:526—549.Google Scholar
Gross, D. 1983 Village Movement in Relation to Resources in Amazonia. In Adaptive Responses of Native Amazonians, edited by R. B. Hames and W. T. Vickers, pp. 429–449. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Heckenberger, M. J. 1996 War and Peace in the Shadow of Empire: Sociopolitical Change in the Upper Xingu of Southeastern Amazonia, ca. A.D. 1400 – 2000. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Heckenberger, M. J. 1997 Investigações arqueológicas no baixo Rio Jaú (médio Negro), Amazonas: relatório de pesquisas preliminar em 1996. Manuscript on file, Fundação Vítoria Amazônica, Manaus.Google Scholar
Heckenberger, M. J. 1998a Manioc Agriculture and Sedentism in Amazonia: The Upper Xingu Example. Antiquity 72:633–648.Google Scholar
Heckenberger, M. J. 1998b Hierarquia e economia política em Amazonia: a estrutura de desigualidade na sociedade Xinguana. Paper presented at the 20th Annual Meeting of the Associação Brasileira de Antropologia, Vítoria.Google Scholar
Heckenberger, M. J. 1999a Estrutura, história e transformação: a cultura Xinguana no longue durée (1000 a 2000 d.C). In História e cultura indígena no alto Xingu: visões antropológicas, edited by B. Franchetto e M. J. Heckenberger. Editora da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, in press.Google Scholar
Heckenberger, M. J. 1999b O enigma das grande cidades: o corpo e o estado Ameríndia. In A outra margem do Occidente. Brasil 500 anos: experiência e destino, vol. 2, edited by Adauto Novaes. Companhia das Letras, São Paulo, in press.Google Scholar
Heckenberger, M. J., Neves, E. G., and Petersen, J. B. 1998 A onde surgem os modelos?: considerações sobre a origem e expansão dos Tupi. Revista de Antropologia 41:69–96.Google Scholar
Hilbert, P. P. 1968 Archäeologische Untersuchungen am Mittleren Amazonas. Dietrich Reimer Verlag, Berlin.Google Scholar
Johnson, A. 1982 Reductionism in Cultural Ecology: The Amazon Case. Current Anthropology 23:413–428.Google Scholar
Kern, D. 1996 Geoquímica e pedogeoquímica em sítios arqueológicos com terra preta na Floresta Nacional de Caxiuanã (Portel-PA). Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Centra de Geociências, Universidade Federal do Pará, Pará, Brazil.Google Scholar
Kneip, L. M. 1969 Relatório sobre as “valetas” do Parque Nacional do Xingu, estado de Mato Grosso. Manuscript on file, Departamento de Antropologia, Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro.Google Scholar
Lathrap, D. W. 1968 The “Hunting” Economies of the Tropical Forest Zone of South America: An Attempt at Historical Perspective. In Man the Hunter, edited by R. B. Lee and I. Devore, pp.23–29. Aldine, Chicago.Google Scholar
Lathrap, D. W. 1970a The Upper Amazon. Praeger, New York.Google Scholar
Lathrap, D. W. 1970b Review of Archäeologische Untersuchungen am Mittleren Amazonas, by P. P. Hilbert. American Antiquity 35:499–501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lathrap, D. W. 1977 Our Father the Cayman, Our Mother the Gourd: Spin-den Revisited, or a Unitary Model for the Emergence of Agriculture in the New World. In Origins of Agriculture, edited by C. A. Reed, pp. 713–751. Mouton, The Hague.Google Scholar
Lathrap, D. W., Gebhart-Sayer, A., and Mester, A. M. 1985 The Roots of the Shipibo Art Style: Three Waves on Imariacocha or There Were “Incas” before the Incas. Journal of Latin American Lore 11:31–119.Google Scholar
Lowie, R. H. 1948 The Tropical Forests: An Introduction. In The Tropical Forest Cultures, edited by J. H. Steward, pp. 1–56. Handbook of South American Indians, vol. 3. Bulletin No. 143, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Machado, A. M. 1993 As tradições ceramistas da bacia Amazônica: uma análise crítica baseada nas evidências arqueológicas do médio Rio Urubu (AM). Unpublished M.A. thesis, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife.Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J. 1954 Environmental Limitation on the Development of Culture. American Anthropologist 56:801–24.Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J. 1986 El uso de secuencias ceramicas seriadas para inferir conducta social. In Actas del primer simposio de la fundacion de argueologia del Caribe, edited by O. M. Fonseca Zamora, pp. 11–32. Caracas.Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J. 1990 Reconstrução do comportamento locacional préhistórico na Amazônia. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Série Antropológico 6:183–203.Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J. 1991 Cultural Evolution in Amazonia. In Profiles in Cultural Evolution, edited by A. T. Rambo and K. Gillogly, pp. 191–216. Anthropological Papers 85. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J. 1992 Prehistoric Population Density in the Amazon Basin. In Disease and Demography in the Americas, edited by J. W. Verano and D. H. Ubelaker, pp. 197–205. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J. 1994 Pre-Columbian Amazonia. National Geographic Research and Explorer 10:398–421.Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J. 1995a Amazonia on the Eve of European Contact: Ethnohistorical, Ecological and Anthropological Perspectives. Revista de Arqueologia Americana 8:91–115.Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J. 1995b Judging the Future by the Past: The Impact of Environmental Instability on Prehistoric Amazonian Populations. In Indigenous Peoples and the Future of Amazonia: An Ecological Anthropology of an Endangered World, edited by L. E. Sponsel, pp. 15—43. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J. 1995c Archaeological Perspectives on the Potential of Amazonia for Intensive Exploitation. In The Fragile Tropics of Latin America: Sustainable Management of Changing Environments, edited by T. Nishizawa and J. I. Uitto, pp. 68–93. United Nations University Press, Tokyo.Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J. 1996 Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise. Rev. ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J. 1997 Review of Amazonian Indians from Prehistory to the Present: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by A. C. Roosevelt. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 2:194–196.Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J., Dias, O. F., Miller, E. T., and Perota, C. 1988 Implications of Archaeological Distributions in Amazonia. In Proceedings of a Workshop on Neotropical Distribution Patterns, edited by W. R. Heyer and P. E. Vanzolini, pp. 275–294. Academia Brasileira de Ciencias, Rio de Janeiro.Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J., and Evans, C. 1957 Archeological Investigations at the Mouth of the Amazon. Bulletin No. 167. Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J., and Evans, C. 1961 An Experimental Formulation of Horizon Styles in the Tropical Forest Area of South America. In Essays in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology, edited by S. K. Lothrop, pp. 372–388. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Meggers, B. J., and Evans, C. 1983 Lowland South America and the Antilles. In Ancient South Americans, edited by J. D. Jennings, pp. 287–335. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Miller, E. T. 1992 Archaeology in the Hydroelectric Projects of Electronorte: Preliminary Results. Electronorte, Brasília.Google Scholar
Mora, C. S., Herrera, L. F., Cavalier F, I., and Rodríguez, C. 1991 Cultivars, Anthropic Soils and Stability: A Preliminary Report of Archaeological Research in Araracuara, Columbian Amazon. Latin American Archaeology Reports 2. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Moran, E. F. 1991 O estudo da adaptação humana em ecosistemas Amazônicos. In Origens, adaptações e diversidade biológica do homem nativo da Amazônia, edited by W. A. Neves, pp. 161–178. CNPq-Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belem.Google Scholar
Moran, E. F. 1993 Through Amazon Eyes: The Human Ecology of Amazonian Populations. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Moran, E. F. 1995 Disaggregating Amazonia: A Strategy for Understanding Biological and Cultural Diversity. In Indigenous Peoples and the Future of Amazonia: An Ecological Anthropology of an Endangered World, edited by L. E. Sponsel, pp. 72–95. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Myers, T. P. 1973 Toward a Reconstruction of Prehistoric Community Patterns in the Amazon Basin. In Variation in Anthropology: Essays in Honor of John C. McGregor, edited by D. W. Lathrap and J. Douglas, pp. 233–252. Illinois Archaeological Survey, Urbana.Google Scholar
Myers, T. P. 1992 The Expansion and Collapse of the Omagua. Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society 20:129–152.Google Scholar
Neves, E. G. 1998 Paths through Dark Waters: Archaeology as Indigenous History in the Upper Rio Negro, Northwest Amazon. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington.Google Scholar
Neves, E. G., and Bartone, R. N. 1998 Preliminary Results of Archaeological Survey in the Central Amazon. Paper presented at the 65th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Seattle.Google Scholar
Nimuendajú, C. U. 1967 The Apinayé. Anthropological Publications, Oosterhout N. B., The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Pabst, E. 1991 Critérios de distinção entre terra preta e latossolo na região de Belterra e os seus significados para a discussão pedogenética. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Série Antropolégico, 7:5–19.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. B. 1996 The Archaeology of Trants, Montserrat, Pt. 3. Chronological and Settlement Data. Annals of Carnegie Museum 65:323–361.Google Scholar
Pires de Campos, A. 1862 Breve noticia que da o capitão Antonio Pires de Campos. Revista Trimestral do Instituto Histórico, Geográfico e Etnográfico do Brasil 25:437–449.Google Scholar
Porro, A. 1993 As crônicas do rio Amazonas: notas etno-históricas sobre as antigas populações indígenas da Amazônia. Editora Vozes, Petropolis.Google Scholar
Porro, A. 1996 O povo das aguas: ensaios de etno-história Amazônica. Editora Vozes, Petropolis.Google Scholar
Posey, D. A. 1994 Environmental and Social Implications of Pre- and Post-contact Situations on Brazilian Indians: The Kayapó and a New Amazonian Synthesis. In Amazonian Indians from Pre-history to the Present: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by A. C. Roosevelt, pp. 271–286. University of Arizona Press, Tuscon.Google Scholar
Posey, D. A., and Balée, W. (editors) 1989 Resource Management in Amazonia: Folk and Indigenous Strategies. Advances in Economic Botany No. 7. New York Botanical Garden, New York.Google Scholar
Raymond, J. S. 1995 From Potsherds to Pots: A First Step in Constructing Cultural Context from Tropical Forest Archaeology. In Archaeology in the Lowland American Tropics: Current Analytical Methods and Applications, edited by P. Stahl, pp. 224–242. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Rivière, P. 1984 Individual and Society in Guiana: A Comparative Study of Amerindian Social Organization. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Roosevelt, A. C. 1980 Parmana: Prehistoric Maize and Manioc Subsistence along the Amazon and Orinoco. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Roosevelt, A. C. 1989 Resource Management in Amazonia before the Conquest: Beyond Ethnographic Projection. In Resource Management in Amazonia: Folk and Indigenous Strategies, edited by D. A. Posey and W. Balee, pp. 30–62. Advances in Economic Botany No. 7. New York Botanical Garden, New York.Google Scholar
Roosevelt, A. C. 1991 Moundbuilders of the Amazon: Geophysical Archaeology on Marajo Island, Brazil. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Roosevelt, A. C. 1994 Amazonian Anthropology: Strategy for a New Synthesis. In Amazonian Indians from Prehistory to the Present: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by A. C. Roosevelt, pp. 1–29. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Ross, E. B. 1978 Food Taboos, Diet, and Hunting Strategy: The Adaptation to Animals in the Amazon. Current Anthropology 19:1–36.Google Scholar
Simões, M. F. 1967 Considerações preliminares sobre a arqueologia do alto Xingu. In Programa National de Pesquisas Arqueológicas: resultados preliminares do primeiro ano. 1965–1966. vol. 6, pp. 129–144. Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belém.Google Scholar
Simões, M. F. 1970 Pesquisas arqueológicas no baixo Rio Negro (Projeto Rio Negro). Manuscript on file, Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belém.Google Scholar
Simões, M. F. 1974a Contribuição è arqueologia dos arredores do baixo Rio Negro, Amazonas. Publicações Avulsas 26:165–188. Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belém.Google Scholar
Simões, M. F. 1974b Pesquisas arqueológicas no baixo Rio Negro (AM): Projeto Rio Negro. Manuscript on file, Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belém.Google Scholar
Simões, M. F. 1983 Pesquisas arqueológicas no alto Rio Negro (AM): relatório sucinto. Manuscript on file, Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belém.Google Scholar
Simões, M. E, and Kalkman, A. 1987 Pesquisas arqueológicas no médio Rio Negro. Revista de Arqueologia 4:83–115.Google Scholar
Smith, N. J. H. 1980 Anthrosols and Human Carrying Capacity in Amazonia. Annals of the Association of American Geography 70:553–566.Google Scholar
Steward, J. H. 1948 Culture Areas of the Tropical Forests. In The Tropical Forest Tribes, edited by J. H. Steward, pp. 883–899. Handbook of South American Indians, vol. 3. Bulletin No. 143, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Steward, J. H. 1949 South American Cultures: An Interpretive Summary. In The Comparative Study of South American Indians, edited by J. H. Steward, pp. 669–772. Handbook of South American Indians, vol. 5. Bulletin No. 143, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Turner, T. 1991 The Mebengokre Kayapo: History, Social Consciouness and Social Change from Autonomous Communities to Inter-Ethnic System. Manuscript on file, Instituto Socioambiental, São Paulo.Google Scholar
Verswijver, G. 1992 The Club-Fighters of the Amazon: Warfare among the Kaipo Indians of Central Brazil. Rijksuniversiteit, Ghent.Google Scholar
Viveiros de Castro, E. B. 1996 Images of Nature and Society in Amazonian Ethnology. Annual Review of Anthropology 25: 179—200.Google Scholar
Whitehead, N. L. 1994 The Ancient Amerindian Polities of the Amazon, the Orinoco, and the Atlantic Coast: A Preliminary Analysis of Their Passage from Antiquity to Extinction. In Amazonian Indians from Prehistory to the Present: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by A. C. Roosevelt, pp. 33–53. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Whitehead, N. L. 1996 Amazonian Archaeology: Searching for Paradise? A Review of Recent Literature and Fieldwork. Journal of Archaeological Research 4:241–264.Google Scholar
Woods, W. I. 1995 Comments on the Black Earths of Amazonia. Papers and Proceedings of the Applied Geography Conferences 18:159–165. Arlington, Virginia.Google Scholar
Woods, W. I., and McCann, J. M. 1998 The Living Soils of Amazonia. Manuscript on file, Department of Geography, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville.Google Scholar
Wüst, I., and Barreto, C. 1999 The Ring Villages of Central Brazil: A Challenge for Amazonian Archaeology. Latin American Antiquity 10:3–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar