Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Depression and Heart Disease

Evidence of a Link, and its Therapeutic Implications

  • Review Article
  • Published:
CNS Drugs Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Over several decades, a large body of evidence has emerged to suggest that depressive disorder is a risk factor for heart diseases, both aetiologically and prognostically. Several large, prospective, longitudinal studies have examined the relationship between depression and the development of coronary artery disease (CAD); they reveal that the relationship is significant and independent of conventional risk factors. Prognostic studies have shown that depression is associated with two to three times higher mortality after myocardial infarction, unstable angina or coronary artery bypass grafting, and in patients with stable CAD compared with such patients without depression. Depression also has been found to increase mortality and morbidity in patients with heart failure, regardless of its aetiology. Such adverse associations persist after adjustment for conventional prognostic risk factors.

Despite all of these findings, depressed patients with heart disease are less likely to be recognised clinically as being depressed than those patients who have depression but no heart disease. The very limited evidence available from pharmacological clinical trials raises concern about the safety of antidepressants in CAD and heart failure. In addition, no research has addressed whether the treatment of depression in patients with heart disease will improve their prognosis.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Table I
Table II
Table III

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Hallstrom T, Lapidus L, Bengtsson C, et al. Psychosocial factors and risk of ischaemic heart disease and death in women: a twelve-year follow-up of participants in the population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. J Psychosom Res 1986; 30: 451–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Appels A, Mulder P. Excess fatigue as a precursor of myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J 1988 Jul; 9: 758–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Anda R, Williamson D, Jones D, et al. Depressed affect, hopelessness, and the risk of ischemic heart disease in a cohort of U.S. adults. Epidemiology 1993 Jul; 4: 285–94

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Aromaa A, Raitasalo R, Reunanen A, et al. Depression and cardiovascular diseases. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1994; 377: 77–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Everson SA, Goldberg DE, Kaplan GA, et al. Hopelessness and risk of mortality and incidence of myocardial infarction and cancer. Psychosom Med 1996 Mar; 58: 113–21

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Wassertheil-Smoller S, Applegate WB, Berge K, et al. Change in depression as a precursor of cardiovascular events. SHEP Cooperative Research Group (Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Project). Arch Intern Med 1996 Mar; 156: 553–61

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Barefoot JC, Schroll M. Symptoms of depression, acute myocardial infarction, and total mortality in a community sample. Circulation 1996; 93: 1976–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Pratt LA, Ford DE, Cram RM, et al. Depression, psychotropic medication, and risk of myocardial infarction: prospective data from the Baltimore ECA follow-up. Circulation 1996; 94: 3123–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Ford DE, Mead LA, Chang PP, et al. Depression is a risk factor for coronary artery disease in men: the Precursors study. Arch Intern Med 1998 Jul; 158: 1422–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Mendes de Leon CF, Krumholz HM, Seeman TS, et al. Depression and risk of coronary heart disease in elderly men and women: New Haven EPESE, 1982–1991. Established Populations for the Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly. Arch Intern Med 1998 Nov; 158: 2341–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Ariyo AA, Haan M, Tangen CM, et al. Depressive symptoms and risks of coronary heart disease and mortality in elderly Americans. Cardiovascular Health Study Collaborative Research Group. Circulation 2000; 102: 1773–9

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Ferketich AK, Schwartzbaum JA, Frid DJ, et al. Depression as an antecedent to heart disease among women and men in the NHANES I study. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 1261–8

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Penninx BW, Beekman AT, Honig A, et al. Depression and cardiac mortality: results from a community-based longitudinal study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001; 58: 221–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  15. Weeke A, Juel K, Vaeth M. Cardiovascular death and manic-depressive psychosis. J Affect Disord 1987; 13: 287–92

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Blazer DG, Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, et al. The prevalence and distribution of major depression in a national community sample: the National Comorbidity Survey. Am J Psychiatry 1994 Jul; 151: 979–86

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Goldberg EL, Comstock GW, Hornstra RK. Depressed mood and subsequent physical illness. Am J Psychiatry 1979 Apr; 136: 530–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Vogt T, Pope C, Mullooly J, et al. Mental health status as a predictor of morbidity and mortality: a 15-year follow-up of members of a health maintenance organization. Am J Public Health 1994 Feb; 84: 227–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Kubzansky LD, Kawachi I, Spiro AI, et al. Is worrying bad for your heart? A prospective study of worry and coronary heart disease in the normative aging study. Circulation 1997; 95: 818–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Wetzel RD, Margulies T, Davis R, et al. Hopelessness, depression, and suicide intent. J Clin Psychiatry 1980 May; 41: 159–60

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Beck AT, Steer RA, Kovacs M, et al. Hopelessness and eventual suicide: a 10-year prospective study of patients hospitalized with suicidal ideation. Am J Psychiatry 1985 May; 142: 559–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Kaufman DW, Helmrich SP, Rosenberg L, et al. Nicotine and carbon monoxide content of cigarette smoke and the risk of myocardial infarction in young men. N Engl J Med 1983 Feb; 308: 409–13

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Stary HC. Evolution and progression of atherosclerotic lesions in coronary arteries of children and young adults. Arteriosclerosis 1989 Jan–Feb; 9(1 Suppl.): 119–32

    Google Scholar 

  24. Krishnan KR, Hays JC, Blazer DG. MRI-defined vascular depression. Am J Psychiatry 1997 Apr; 154: 497–501

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Doraiswamy PM, MacFall J, Krishnan KR, et al. Magnetic resonance assessment of cerebral perfusion in depressed cardiac patients: preliminary findings. Am J Psychiatry 1999 Oct; 156: 1641–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Stern MJ, Pascale L, Ackerman A. Life adjustment postmyo-cardial infarction: determining predictive variables. Arch Intern Med 1977 Dec; 137: 1680–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Schleifer SJ, Macari-Hinson MM, Coyle DA, et al. The nature and course of depression following myocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med 1989; 149: 1785–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Ahern DK, Gorkin L, Anderson JL, et al. Biobehavioral variables and mortality or cardiac arrest in the Cardiac Arrhythmia Pilot Study (CAPS). Am J Cardiol 1990; 66: 59–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Ladwig KH, Roll G, Breithardt G, et al. Post-infarction depression and incomplete recovery 6 months after acute myocardial infarction. Lancet 1994 Jan; 343: 20–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Talajic M. Depression following myocardial infarction: impact on 6-month survival. JAMA 1993; 270(15): 1819–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Talajic M. Depression and 18-month prognosis after myocardial infarction. Circulation 1995; 91: 999–1005

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Denollet J, Brutsaert DL. Personality, disease severity, and the risk of long-term cardiac events in patients with a decreased ejection fraction after myocardial infarction. Circulation 1998 Jan; 97: 167–73

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Juneau M, et al. Gender, depression, and one-year prognosis after myocardial infarction. Psychosom Med 1999 Jan; 61: 26–37

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Irvine J, Basinski A, Baker B, et al. Depression and risk of sudden cardiac death after acute myocardial infarction: testing for the confounding effects of fatigue. Psychosom Med 1999; 61: 729–37

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Lane D, Carroll D, Ring C, et al. Mortality and quality of life after myocardial infarction: effects of depression and anxiety. Psychosom Med 2001; 63: 221–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  37. Forrester AW, Lipsey JR, Teitelbaum ML, et al. Depression following myocardial infarction. Int J Psychiatry Med 1992; 22: 33–46

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Shapiro PA, Lesperance F, Frasure-Smith N, et al. An open-label preliminary trial of sertraline for treatment of major depression after acute myocardial infarction (the SADHAT Trial). Am Heart J 1999; 137: 1100–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Mayou RA, Gill D, Thompson DR, et al. Depression and anxiety as predictors of outcome after myocardial infarction. Psychosom Med 2000; 62: 212–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Ladwig KH, Roll G, Breithardt G, et al. Extracardiac contributions to chest pain perception in patients 6 months after acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J 1999 Mar; 137: 528–35

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Carney RM, Freedland KE, Eisen SA, et al. Major depression and medication adherence in elderly patients with coronary artery disease. Health Psychol 1995 Jan; 14: 88–90

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Hance M, Carney RM, Freedland KE, et al. Depression in patients with coronary heart disease: a 12-month follow-up. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1996 Jan; 18: 61–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Gonzalez MB, Snyderman TB, Colket JT, et al. Depression in patients with coronary artery disease. Depression 1996; 4: 57–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Sullivan M, LaCroix A, Russo J, et al. Depression in coronary heart disease. What is the appropriate diagnostic threshold? Psychosomatics 1999 Jul; 40(4): 286–92

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Carney RM, Rich MW, Freedland KE, et al. Major depressive disorder predicts cardiac events in patients with coronary artery disease. Psychosom Med 1988 Nov; 50: 627–33

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Barefoot JC, Helms MJ, Mark DB, et al. Depression and long-term mortality risk in patients with coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 1996; 78: 613–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Jiang W, Hathaway WR, McNulty S, et al. Ability of heart rate variability to predict prognosis in patients with advanced congestive heart failure. Am J Cardiol 1997 Sep; 80: 808–11

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Gullette ECD, Blumenthal JA, Babyak M, et al. Effects of mental stress on myocardial ischemia during daily life. JAMA 1997; 277: 1521–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Lesperance F, Frasure-Smith N, Juneau M, et al. Depression and 1-year prognosis in unstable angina. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 1354–60

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Saur CD, Granger BB, Muhlbaier LH, et al. Depressive symptoms and outcome of coronary artery bypass grafting. Am J Crit Care 2001; 10: 4–10

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Baker RA, Andrew MJ, Schrader G, et al. Preoperative depression and mortality in coronary artery bypass surgery: preliminary findings. A NZ J Surg 2001; 71(3): 139–42

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Konstam MA, Dracup K, Baker D, et al. Heart failure: evaluation and care of patients with left-ventricular dysfunction. Clin Pract Guidel Quick Ref Guide Clin 1994; (11): 1–21

    Google Scholar 

  53. Gooding J, Jette AM. Hospital readmissions among the elderly. J Am Geriatr Soc 1985 Sep; 33: 595–601

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Rich MW, Freedland KE. Effect of DRGs on three-month read- mission rate of geriatric patients with congestive heart failure. Am J Public Health 1988 Jun; 78: 680–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Vinson JM, Rich MW, Sperry JC, et al. Early readmission of elderly patients with congestive heart failure. J Am Geriatr Soc 1990; 38: 1290–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Krumholz HM, Butler J, Miller J, et al. Prognostic importance of emotional support for elderly patients hospitalized with heart failure. Circulation 1998; 97: 958–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Koenig HG. Depression in hospitalized older patients with congestive heart failure. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1998 Jan; 20: 29–43

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Jiang W, Alexander J, Christopher E, et al. Relationship of depression to increased risk of mortality and rehospitalization in patients with congestive heart failure. Arch Intern Med 2001 Aug; 161: 1849–56

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Murberg TA, Bru E, Svebak S, et al. Depressed mood and subjective health symptoms as predictors of mortality in patients with congestive heart failure: a two-years follow-up study. Int J Psychiatry Med 1999; 29: 311–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Vaccarino V, Kasl SV, Abramson J, et al. Depression symptoms and risk of functional decline and death in patients with heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 38: 199–205

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Mayo-Smith W, Hayes CW, Biller BM, et al. Body fat distribution measured with CT: correlations in healthy subjects, patients with anorexia nervosa, and patients with Cushing syndrome. Radiology 1989 Feb; 170: 515–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Thakore JH, Richards PJ, Reznek RH, et al. Increased intra-abdominal fat deposition in patients with major depressive illness as measured by computed tomography. Biol Psychiatry 1997 Jun; 41: 1140–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Veith RC, Lewis N, Linares OA, et al. Sympathetic nervous system activity in major depression. Basal and desipramine-induced alterations in plasma norepinephrine kinetics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994 May; 51: 411–22

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Krittayaphong R, Cascio WE, Light KC, et al. Heart rate variability in patients with coronary artery disease: differences in patients with higher and lower depression scores. Psychosom Med 1997 May; 59: 231–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Watkins LL, Grossman P. Association of depressive symptoms with reduced baroreflex cardiac control in coronary artery disease. Am Heart J 1999 Mar; 137: 453–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Carney RM, Saunders RD, Freedland KE, et al. Association of depression with reduced heart rate variability in coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 1995 Sep; 76: 562–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Hughes JW, Stoney CM. Depressed mood is related to high-frequency heart rate variability during Stressors. Psychosom Med 2000; 62: 796–803

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Pitzalis MV, Iacoviello M, Todarello O, et al. Depression but not anxiety influences the autonomic control of heart rate after myocardial infarction. Am Heart J 2001; 141: 765–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Kleiger RE, Miller JP, Bigger Jr JT, et al. Decreased heart rate variability and its association with increased mortality after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 1987; 59: 256–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Patrono C, Renda G. Platelet activation and inhibition in unstable coronary syndromes. Am J Cardiol 1997 Sep; 80(5A): 17E–20E

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Musselman DL, Tomer A, Manatunga AK, et al. Exaggerated platelet reactivity in major depression. Am J Psychiatry 1996 Oct; 153: 1313–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Lingjaerde O, Oreland L. Platelet monoamine oxidase activity in patients with winter seasonal affective disorder. Psychiatry Res 1996 Jun; 62: 273–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Laghrissi-Thode F, Wagner WR, Pollock BG, et al. Elevated platelet factor 4 and beta-thromboglobulin plasma levels in depressed patients with ischemic heart disease. Biol Psychiatry 1997 Aug; 42: 290–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Appels A, Bar FW, Bar J, et al. Inflammation, depressive symptomatology, and coronary artery disease. Psychosom Med 2000; 62: 601–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Siegler HC, Blumenthal JA, Barefoot JC, et al. Personality factors differentially predict exercise behavior in men and women. Womens Health 1997; 3: 61–70

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Adler NE, Boyce T, Chesney MA, et al. Socioeconomic status and health: the challenge of the gradient. Am Psychol 1994 Jan; 49: 15–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Berkman LF. The role of social relations in health promotion. Psychosom Med 1995 May; 57: 245–54

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Williams RB, Barefoot JC, Califf RM, et al. Prognostic importance of social and economic resources among medically treated patients with angiographically documented coronary artery disease. JAMA 1992; 267: 520–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Horsten M, Mittleman MA, Wamala SP, et al. Depressive symptoms and lack of social integration in relation to prognosis of CHD in middle-aged women. The Stockholm Female Coronary Risk Study. Eur Heart J 2000 Jul; 21: 1072–80

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Blumenthal JA, Williams RS, Wallace AG, et al. Physiological and psychological variables predict compliance to prescribed exercise therapy in patients recovering from myocardial infarction. Psychosom Med 1982; 44: 519–27

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Ziegelstein RC, Fauerbach JA, Stevens SS, et al. Patients with depression are less likely to follow recommendations to reduce cardiac risk during recovery from a myocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med 2000 Jun; 160: 1818–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Krishnan KR, George LK, Pieper CF, et al. Depression and social support in elderly patients with cardiac disease. Am Heart J 1998 Sep; 136: 491–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Strik JJMH, Honig A, Lousberg R, et al. Efficacy and safety of fluoxetine in the treatment of patients with major depression after first myocardial infarction: findings from a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Psychosom Med 2000; 62: 783–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Veith RC, Raskind MA, Caldwell JH, et al. Cardiovascular effects of tricyclic antidepressants in depressed patients with chronic heart disease. N Engl J Med 1982 Apr; 306: 954–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Nelson JC, Kennedy JS, Pollock BG, et al. Treatment of major depression with nortriptyline and paroxetine in patients with ischemic heart disease. Am J Psychiatry 1999 Jul; 156: 1024–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Roose SP, Glassman AH, Giardina EG, et al. Cardiovascular effects of imipramine and bupropion in depressed patients with congestive heart failure. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1987 Aug; 7: 247–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Raisfeld IH. Cardiovascular complications of antidepressant therapy: interactions at the adrenergic neuron. Am Heart J 1972 Jan; 83: 129–33

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Baker B, Dorian P, Sandor P, et al. Electrocardiographic effects of fluoxetine and doxepin in patients with major depressive disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1997 Feb; 17: 15–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Preliminary report: effect of encainide and flecainide on mortality in a randomized trial of arrhythmia suppression after myocardial infarction. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) Investigators. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 406-12

    Google Scholar 

  90. Upward JW, Edwards JG, Goldie A, et al. Comparative effects of fluoxetine and amitriptyline on cardiac function. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1988 Oct; 26: 399–402

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Roose SP, Dalack GW, Glassman AH, et al. Cardiovascular effects of bupropion in depressed patients with heart disease. Am J Psychiatry 1991 Apr; 148: 512–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Laird LK, Lydiard RB, Morton WA, et al. Cardiovascular effects of imipramine, fluvoxamine, and placebo in depressed outpatients. J Clin Psychiatry 1993 Jun; 54: 224–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Kiev A, Masco HL, Wenger TL, et al. The cardiovascular effects of bupropion and nortriptyline in depressed outpatients. Ann Clin Psychiatry 1994 Jun; 6: 107–15

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Hewer W, Rost W, Gattaz WF. Cardiovascular effects of fluvoxamine and maprotiline in depressed patients. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1995; 246: 1–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Tulen JH, Bruijn JA, de Man KJ, et al. Cardiovascular variability in major depressive disorder and effects of imipramine or mirtazapine (Org 3770). J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996 Apr; 16: 135–45

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Feighner JP. Cardiovascular safety in depressed patients: focus on venlafaxine. J Clin Psychiatry 1995 Dec; 56: 574–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Thase ME. Effects of venlafaxine on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of original data from 3744 depressed patients. J Clin Psychiatry 1998 Oct; 59: 502–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. van de Merwe TJ, Silverstone T, Ankier SI, et al. A double-blind non-crossover placebo-controlled study between group comparison of trazodone and amitriptyline on cardiovascular function in major depressive disorder. Psychopathology 1984; 17Suppl. 2: 64–76

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Janowsky D, Curtis G, Zisook S, et al. Trazodone-aggravated ventricular arrhythmias. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1983; 3: 372–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Avery D, Winokur G. Mortality in depressed patients treated with electroconvulsive therapy and antidepressants. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1976 Sep; 33: 1029–37

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Enhancing recovery in coronary heart disease patients (EN-RICHD): study design and methods. The ENRICHD Investigators. Am Heart J 2001 Jan; 139: 1-9

  102. Alvarez JC, Gluck N, Arnulf I, et al. Decreased platelet serotonin transporter sites and increased platelet inositol triphosphate levels in patients with unipolar depression: effects of clomipramine and fluoxetine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1999 Dec; 66: 617–24

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Pollock BG, Laghrissi-Thode F, Wagner WR. Evaluation of platelet activation in depressed patients with ischemic heart disease after paroxetine or nortriptyline treatment. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2000 Apr; 20: 137–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Markovitz JH, Shuster JL, Chitwood WS, et al. Platelet activation in depression and effects of sertraline treatment: an open-label study. Am J Psychiatry 2000 Jun; 157: 1006–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Musselman DL, Marzec UM, Manatunga A, et al. Platelet reactivity in depressed patients treated with paroxetine: preliminary findings. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000 Sep; 57: 875–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Rechlin T, Weis M, Claus D. Heart rate variability in depressed patients and differential effects of paroxetine and amitriptyline on cardiovascular autonomic functions. Pharmacopsychiatry 1994 May; 27: 124–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Khaykin Y, Dorian P, Baker B, et al. Autonomie correlates of antidepressant treatment using heart-rate variability analysis. Can J Psychiatry 1998 Mar; 43: 183-6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the editorial assistance provided by Pat French, senior Editor at the Duke Clinical Research Institute.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, 3203 Winfield Drive, Durham, North Carolina, 27707, USA

    Wei Jiang & Ranga R.K. Krishnan

  2. Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA

    Christopher M. O’Connor

Authors
  1. Wei Jiang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ranga R.K. Krishnan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Christopher M. O’Connor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Jiang, W., Krishnan, R.R. & O’Connor, C.M. Depression and Heart Disease. Mol Diag Ther 16, 111–127 (2002). https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200216020-00004

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200216020-00004

Keywords

Search

Navigation