Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Specific Aspects of Contemporary Triathlon

Implications for Physiological Analysis and Performance

  • Leading Article
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Triathlon competitions are performed over markedly different distances and under a variety of technical constraints. In ’standard-distance’ triathlons involving 1.5km swim, 40km cycling and 10km running, a World Cup series as well as a World Championship race is available for ’elite’ competitors. In contrast, ’age-group’ triathletes may compete in 5-year age categories at a World Championship level, but not against the elite competitors. The difference between elite and age-group races is that during the cycle stage elite competitors may ’draft’ or cycle in a sheltered position; age-group athletes complete the cycle stage as an individual time trial. Within triathlons there are a number of specific aspects that make the physiological demands different from the individual sports of swimming, cycling and running. The physiological demands of the cycle stage in elite races may also differ compared with the age-group format. This in turn may influence performance during the cycle leg and subsequent running stage.

Wetsuit use and drafting during swimming (in both elite and age-group races) result in improved buoyancy and a reduction in frontal resistance, respectively. Both of these factors will result in improved performance and efficiency relative to normal pool-based swimming efforts. Overall cycling performance after swimming in a triathlon is not typically affected. However, it is possible that during the initial stages of the cycle leg the ability of an athlete to generate the high power outputs necessary for tactical position changes may be impeded. Drafting during cycling results in a reduction in frontal resistance and reduced energy cost at a given submaximal intensity. The reduced energy expenditure during the cycle stage results in an improvement in running, so an athlete may exercise at a higher percentage of maximal oxygen uptake. In elite triathlon races, the cycle courses offer specific physiological demands that may result in different fatigue responses when compared with standard time-trial courses. Furthermore, it is possible that different physical and physiological characteristics may make some athletes more suited to races where the cycle course is either flat or has undulating sections. An athlete’s ability to perform running activity after cycling, during a triathlon, may be influenced by the pedalling frequency and also the physiological demands of the cycle stage. The technical features of elite and age-group triathlons together with the physiological demands of longer distance events should be considered in experimental design, training practice and also performance diagnosis of triathletes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Table I
Table II
Table III
Table IV
Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. O’Toole ML, Douglas PS, Hiller WDB. Applied physiology of a triathlon. Sports Med 1989; 8: 201–25

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. O’Toole ML, Douglas PS. Applied physiology of triathlon. Sports Med 1995; 19: 251–67

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Margaritis I. Facteurs limitants de la performance en triathlon. Can J Appl Physiol 1996; 21: 1–15

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Sleivert GG, Rowlands DS. Physical and physiological factors associated with success in the triathlon. Sports Med 1996; 22: 8–18

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Chatard JC, Senegas X, Selles M, et al. Wet suit effect: a comparison between competitive swimmers and triathletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 580–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Trappe TA, Pease DL, Trappe SW, et al. Physiological responses to swimming while wearing a wet suit. Int J Sports Med 1996; 17: 111–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Wolff AH, Coleshaw SRK, Newstead CG, et al. Heat exchanges in wetsuits. J Appl Physiol 1985; 58: 770–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Lowdon BJ, McKenzie D, Ridge BR. Effects of clothing and water temperature on swim performance. Aust J Sci Med Sports 1992; 24: 33–8

    Google Scholar 

  9. Trappe TA, Starling RD, Jozsi AC, et al. Thermal responses to swimming in three water temperatures: influence of a wet suit. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 1014–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Costill DL, Kovaleski J, Porter D, et al. Energy expenditure during front crawl swimming: predicting success in middle-distance events. Int J Sports Med 1985; 6: 266–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Toussaint HM, Hollander AP. Energetics of competitive swimming: implications for training programmes. Sports Med 1994; 18: 384–405

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Chatard JC, Lavoie JM, Lacour JR. Analysis of determinants of swimming economy in front crawl. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 61: 88–92

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Capelli C, Zamparo P, Cigalotto A, et al. Bioenergetics and biomechanics of front crawl swimming. J Appl Physiol 1995; 78: 674–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Toussaint HM, Bruinink L, Coster R, et al. Effect of a triathlon wet suit on drag during swimming. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21: 325–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Chatard JC, Millet G. Effects of wetsuit use in swimming event: practical recommendations. Sports Med 1996; 22: 70–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Cordain L, Kopriva R. Wetsuits, body density and swimming performance. Br J Sports Med 1991; 25: 31–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. de Lucas RD, Balikian P, Neiva CM, et al. The effects of wet suits on physiological and biomechanical indices during swimming. J Sci Med Sport 2000; 3: 1–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Parsons L, Day J. Do wet suit affect swimming speed? Br J Sports Med 1986; 20: 129–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Troup J. The effects of drafting on training and performance capacity. In: Troup J, editor. Studies by the International Center for Aquatic Research. Colorado Springs (CO): US Swimming Press, 1990: 107–11

    Google Scholar 

  20. Toussaint HM. Differences in propelling efficiency between competitive and triathlon swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990; 22: 409–15

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Landers GJ, Blanksby BA, Ackland TR, et al. Morphology and performance of world championship triathletes. Ann Hum Biol 2000; 27: 387–400

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Millet G, Chollet D, Chalies S, et al. Comparison of coordination in crawl between elite triathletes and elite swimmers. Int J Sports Med 2002; 23: 99–104

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Craig ABJ, Pendergast DR. Relationships of stroke rate, distance per stroke, and velocity in competitive swimming. Med Sci Sports 1979; 11: 278–83

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Toussaint HM, Beek PJ. Biomechanics of competitive front crawl swimming. Sports Med 1992; 13: 8–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Chatard JC, Chollet D, Millet G. Performance and drag during drafting swimming in highly trained triathletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998; 30: 1276–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Chollet D, Hue O, Auclair F, et al. The effects of drafting on stroking variations during swimming in elite male triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 82: 413–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Millet G, Chollet D, Chatard JC. Effects of drafting behind a two-or a six-beat kick swimmer in elite female triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 82: 465–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Bassett DR, Flohr J, Duey WJ, et al. Metabolic responses to drafting during front crawl swimming. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 744–7

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Finlay JB, Hartman AF, Weir RC. Post-swim orthostatic intolerance in a marathon swimmer. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 1231–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Farber HW, Schaefer EJ, Franey R, et al. The endurance triathlon: metabolic changes after each event and during recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 959–65

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Kreider R, Boone T, Thompson W, et al. Cardiovascular and thermal responses of triathlon performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988; 20: 385–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Laursen PB, Rhodes EC, Langill RH. The effects of 3000-m swimming on subsequent 3-h cycling performance: implications for ultra endurance triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 83: 28–33

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Pages T, Murtra B, Ibanez J, et al. Changes in blood ammonia and lactate levels during a triathlon race. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1994; 34 (4): 351–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Di Prampero PE, Cortili G, Mognoni P, et al. Equation of motion of a cyclist. J Appl Physiol 1979; 47: 201–6

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Swain DP. The influence of body mass in endurance bicycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 58–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Hausswirth C, Lehenaff D, Dreano P, et al. Effects of cycling alone or in a sheltered position on subsequent running performance during a triathlon. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 599–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Hausswirth C, Vallier JM, Lehenaff D, et al. Effect of two drafting modalities in cycling on running performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 485–92

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. McCole SD, Claney K, Conte JC, et al. Energy expenditure during bicycling. J Appl Physiol 1990; 68: 748–53

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Padilla S, Mujika I, Orbananos J, et al. Exercise intensity during competition time trials in professional road cycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32 (4): 850–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Smith D, Lee H, Pickard R, et al. Power demands of the cycle leg during elite triathlon competition. 2nd International Congress on Triathlon; 1999 Mar; Paris, 30

  41. Liedl MA, Swain DP, Branch JD. Physiological effects of constant versus variables power during endurance cycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 1472–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Palmer GS, Noakes TD, Hawley JA. Effects of steady state versus stochastic exercise on subsequent cycling performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: 684–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Palmer GS, Borghouts LB, Noakes TD, et al. Metabolic and performance responses to constant-load vs variable intensity exercise in trained cyclists. J Appl Physiol 1999; 87: 1186–96

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Ramsay RL, Davies PD, Sharp NCC. The effect of variable power output during cycling on subsequent run performance in triathletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33 Suppl. 5: 341

    Google Scholar 

  45. Bergh U, Sjodin B, Forsberg A, et al. The relationship between body mass and oxygen uptake during running in humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 205–11

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Lucia A, Joyos H, Chicharro JL. Physiological response to professional road cycling: climbers vs time trialists. Int J Sports Med 2000; 21: 505–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Lucia A, Hoyos J, Chicharro JL. Physiology of professional road cycling. Sports Med 2001; 31: 325–37

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Schabort EJ, Killian SC, St Clair Gibson A, et al. Prediction of triathlon race time from laboratory testing in national triathletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 844–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Coast JR, Cox RH, Welch HG. Optimal pedalling rate in prolonged bouts of cycle ergometry. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1986; 18: 225–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Chavarren J, Calbert JAL. Cycling efficiency and pedalling frequency in road cyclists. Eur J Appl Physiol 1999; 80: 555–63

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Marsh AP, Martin PE. The association between cycling experience and preferred and most economical cadences. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25: 1269–74

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Brisswalter J, Hausswirth C, Smith D, et al. Energetically optimal cadence vs freely chosen cadence during cycling: effect of exercise duration. Int J Sports Med 2000; 21: 60–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Neptune RR, Kautz SA, Hull ML. The effect of pedalling rate on coordination in cycling. J Biomech 1997; 30: 1051–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Hull ML, Gonzalez HK, Redfield R. Optimization of pedaling rate in cycling using a muscle stress-based objective function. Int J Sport Biomech 1988; 4: 1–20

    Google Scholar 

  55. Takaishi T, Yasuda Y, Moritani T. Neuromuscular fatigue during prolonged pedalling exercise at different pedalling rates. Eur J Appl Physiol 1994; 69: 154–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Vercruyssen F, Hausswirth C, Smith D, et al. Effet de la durée de l’exercice sur le choix d’une cadence optimale de pédalage chez des triathletes. Can J Appl Physiol 2001; 26: 44–54

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Lepers R, Millet GY, Maffiuletti NA, et al. Effect of pedalling rates on physiological response during endurance cycling. Eur J Appl Physiol 2001; 85: 392–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Lucia A, Hoyos J, Chicharro JL. Preferred pedalling cadence in professional cycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 1361–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Lepers R, Hausswirth C, Maffiuletti N, et al. Evidence of neuromuscular fatigue after prolonged cycling exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 1880–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Millet GP, Vleck VE. Physiological and biomechanical adaptations to the cycle to run transition inOlympic triathlon: review and practical recommendations for training. Br J Sports Med 2000; 34: 384–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Hue O, Le Gallais D, Chollet D, et al. The influence of prior cycling on biomechanical and cardiorespiratory response profiles during running in triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 1998; 77: 98–105

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Boone T, Kreider RB. Bicycle exercise before running: effect on performance. Ann Sports Med 1986; 3: 25–9

    Google Scholar 

  63. Guezennec CY, Vallier JM, Bigard AX, et al. Increase in energy cost of running at the end of a triathlon. Eur J Appl Physiol 1996; 73: 440–5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Millet GP, Millet GY, Hoffmann MD, et al. Alterations in running economy and mechanics after maximal cycling in triathletes: influence of performance level. Int J Sports Med 2000; 21: 127–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Romijn JA, Coyle EF, Sidossis LS, et al. Regulation of endogenous fat and carbohydrate metabolism in relation to exercise intensity and duration. Am J Physiol 1993; 265: E380–1

    Google Scholar 

  66. Brisswalter J, Hausswirth C, Vercruyssen F, et al. Carbohydrate ingestion does not influence the change in energy cost during a 2-h run in well-trained triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 81: 108–13

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Quigley EJ, Richards JG. The effects of cycling on running mechanics. J Appl Biomech 1996; 12: 470–9

    Google Scholar 

  68. Millet GP, Millet GY, Candau RB. Duration and seriousness of running mechanics alterations after maximal cycling in triathletes: influence of the performance level. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2001; 41: 147–53

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Hausswirth C, Brisswalter J, Vallier JM, et al. Evolution of electromyographic signal, running economy, and perceived exertion during different prolonged exercises. Int J Sports Med 2000; 21: 429–36

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Paavolainen L, Nummela A, Rusko H, et al. Neuromuscular characteristics and fatigue during 10-km running. Int J Sports Med 1999; 20: 516–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Patterson RP, Moreno MI. Bicycle pedalling forces as a function of pedalling rate and power output. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1990; 22: 512–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Vercruyssen F, Brisswalter J, Hausswirth C, et al. Influence of cycling cadence on subsequent running performance in triathletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34: 530–6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Miura H, Kitagawa K, Ishikp T. Characteristic feature of oxygen cost at simulated laboratory triathlon test in trained triathletes. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1999; 39: 101–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Hue O, Le Gallais D, Boussana A, et al. Performance level and cardiopulmonary responses during a cycle-run trial. Int J Sports Med 2001; 21: 250–5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Hausswirth C, Bigard AX, Guezennec CY. Relationships between running mechanics and energy cost of running at the end of a triathlon and a marathon. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18: 330–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the funding supplied by the British Triathlon Association, which has enabled the collection of power output and pedalling frequency data by Mr Paul Davies.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sport and Exercise Science, The University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK

    David J. Bentley & Lars R. McNaughton

  2. Faculty of Sports Science, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France

    Grégoire P. Millet

  3. The School of Chemical and Life Sciences, University of Greenwich, London, UK

    Verónica E. Vleck

Authors
  1. David J. Bentley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Grégoire P. Millet
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Verónica E. Vleck
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Lars R. McNaughton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David J. Bentley.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bentley, D.J., Millet, G.P., Vleck, V.E. et al. Specific Aspects of Contemporary Triathlon. Sports Med 32, 345–359 (2002). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200232060-00001

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200232060-00001

Keywords

Search

Navigation