Manner assimilation is defined as occurring when two consonants in a row pronounced by a different manner of articulation are realized by the same manner of articulation due to the neighboring consonant. Let us first consider the case of Korean.
4.1 MANNER ASSIMILATION IN KOREAN5
Consonantal assimilation in terms of the manner of articulation is an obligatory phenomenon in Korean phonology, but only a few of languages have this process (Kim, 2008; Heo & Kim, 2013). In Korean, there are two kinds of consonantal assimilation in terms of the manner of articulation: namely, nasalization and lateralization. Nasalization takes place in words like 국민 kwukmin [kuŋmin], 심리 simli [simni], 종로 conglo [joŋno], 입력 iplyek [imnyək], and lateralization in words such as 진리 cinli [jilli], 설날 selnal [səllal]. Let us first consider nasalization in Korean.
4.1.1 Nasalization
First of all, the final consonants /k/, /t/, and /p/ are pronounced as [ŋ], [n], and [m], respectively, before a nasal /n/, /m/.6 Examples given below show the nasalization process of obstruent-nasal sequences.
(12). Nasalization of obstruents in obstruent-nasal sequences
The interesting point here is that the preceding consonant is nasalized by the effect of the following consonant when a nasal consonant comes after an obstruent as in 막내 maknay [maŋnɛ] and 국물 kwukmul [kuŋmul]. The obstruent, however, is not pronounced as a nasal consonant after a nasal. In case of a nasal and an obstruent being adjacent to each other as in 안개 ankay, 연기 yenki, 한국 hankwuk, 임금 imkum, 잔디 canti, 쌈밥 ssampap, 짱구 ccangkwu, each syllable keeps its own sound value. In other words, the two consonants in sequence remain intact, and thus they are pronounced as they are.
Secondly, the liquid /l/ after the final consonant /m/ or /ŋ/ is pronounced as a nasal [n]. Examples are presented below:
(13). Nasalization of liquids in nasal-liquid sequences
However, when a nasal consonant comes after a liquid such as 설마 selma, 얼마 elma, 썰매 sselmay, there is no change. The liquid-nasal sequences preserve their original sound value.
Finally, when the liquid /l/ comes after a following obstruent such as /k/, /p/, it is realized as its corresponding nasal retaining its place of articulation. That is, /k/ is realized as [ŋ], and /p/ is realized as [m]. Together with this, the liquid /l/ is pronounced as [n]. That is, the two consonants in sequence cause the change in the other by affecting each other.
(14). Nasalization of obstruents and liquids in obstruent-liquid sequences
Yet, no phonological changes happen in cases where an obstruent such as /k/ or /p/ comes after a liquid /l/. This can be recognized in the pronunciation of such words as 딸기 ttalki, 얼굴 elkwul, 슬기 sulki, 날개 nalkay, 줄기 cwulki, and so on.
This contrasts with the case of Vietnamese where the word like quốclập ‘statefounded’ is pronounced as it is. As mentioned previously, consonantal assimilation in terms of the manner of articulation such as nasalization is not easily found in other languages. For example, in English, consonantal sequences such as ‘d-n, p-m, k-n, k-r, p-l’ are pronounced as they are. This is recognized in the pronunciation of such examples as good news, pop music, nickname, pork ribs, upload, and so forth. Whereas, in Korean, 닫는 tatnun, 밥물 papmul, 독립 toklip, 막내 maknay 입력 iplyek cannot be pronounced as they are. The obstruent in the consonantal sequence must undergo changes, resulting in the pronunciations [tannɨn], [pammul], [toŋnip], [maŋnɛ], and [imnyək], respectively. Consonantal sequences such as ‘obstruent-nasal’ and ‘obstruent-liquid’ are pronounced without assimilation in English, whereas they must be pronounced with consonantal assimilation in terms of manner of articulation in Korean.
To be more concrete, the consonantal sequences of obstruent-nasal (e.g., good news, nickname) and obstruent-liquid (e.g., pork ribs, upload) are possible in English. In Korean, however, an obstruent in the preceding consonant position is pronounced as a nasal which is pronounced in the same place of articulation, and a liquid is pronounced as a nasal [n]. That is, both consonants forming a consonantal sequence (e.g., 국민 kwukmin [kuŋmin], 협력 hyeplyek [hyəmnyək]) undergo changes. This is an obligatory process without any exceptions in Korean, so many Korean speakers pronounce English words such as ‘good news, pop music, nickname, and pork ribs’ as [gʊnnju:z], [pɑ:mmju:zɪk], [nɪŋneɪm], [pɔ: ŋnɪbz] after the application of nasalization of both an obstruent and a liquid.
To further clarify the principle of consonantal assimilation, we can compare the process of consonantal assimilation in terms of the manner of articulation in Korean and English. Let us first consider the condition of consonantal assimilation given below:
In English, the consonantal sequence ‘p-m’ and ‘k-n’ in pop music and nickname are pronounced as [pm] and [kn], not [mm] and [ŋn]. That is, the obstruents ‘p’ and ‘k’ do not undergo changes. When two neighboring consonants establish a relationship, the following consonant must not be weaker than the preceding one (Harris, 1994).
The strength of consonants is given below:
(15). Consonant Hierarchy of Strength7
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When the following consonant is weaker than the previous one, consonantal assimilation takes place to increase the strength of the following consonant. In the opposite case, no consonantal assimilation takes place. There are two ways to make the following consonant stronger than the preceding one. One is to increase the strength of the following consonant and the other is to decrease that of the preceding consonant. In the case of Korean, the strength of the preceding consonant is first weakened. In this case, regressive assimilation, whereby the following consonant affects the previous one, takes place. However, in the case in which weakening the preceding consonant is not possible, increasing the strength of the following consonant (i.e., progressive assimilation) takes place. Of importance in the adjustment of the consonantal strength is the fact that the place of articulation for the consonant in question is fixed. In other words, labials can be realized as labials, alveolars as alveolars, velars as velars. The strength hierarchy of Korean consonants with the place of articulation is presented in (16) below (Heo & Kim, 2006).
(16). The strength hierarchy of consonants in Korean
4.1.2 Lateralization
In the two adjacent consonants, lateralization is also found in Korean. Nasal ‘n’ is pronounced as [l] before or after liquid ‘l’. Here are some relevant examples.
(17). Lateralization of nasal /n/ in nasal-liquid and liquid-nasal sequences
Unlike nasalization, the order of ‘n’ and ‘l’ has no influence on whether the phenomenon of lateralization takes place or not. The nasal ‘n’ is always pronounced as the liquid [l] regardless of the order of ‘n’ and ‘l’. Lateralization is not found in Chinese and Vietnamese as the pronunciation is separated by the unit of syllables. In English, lateralization also does not take place in the same environment. Here are some relevant examples.
(18). Pronunciation of nasal-liquid sequence in other languages
As mentioned earlier, consonantal assimilation in terms of the manner of articulation between the two consonants in Korean is not common in languages, unlike place assimilation. However, a similar process is observed in Hindi phonology. Let us briefly consider the process of Hindi nasalization.
4.2 MANNER ASSIMILATION IN HINDI
The so-called consonant Sandhi in Hindi is very similar to the case of Korean consonantal assimilation (Choi, 2003). Here are some examples.
In Hindi, consonantal sequences such as ‘k-m, t-n, t-m’ are not pronounced as they are, as is also the case in Korean. The first consonants must undergo nasalization. As a result, they are pronounced as [ŋm], [nn], [nm] just with the consonantal assimilation in terms of the manner of articulation. Consonantal assimilation in Hindi is recognized as the same phenomenon as occurs in Korean. Compare the pronunciation of the words in (19) above with that of words such as 국물 kwukmul [kuŋmul], 닫는 tatnun [tannɨn], 곁눈 kyethnwun [kyənnun] in Korean. The original consonantal sequences are exactly the same and the pronunciation of each sequence is the same. No difference is found in the phonological process of both languages. Consonantal assimilation in terms of the Kim: Pronunciation Types of Consonantal Sequences and Korean Language Education 59 manner of articulation takes place in each word, leaving the place of articulation intact.
So far the pronunciation types of consonantal sequences have been surveyed. Korean is different from Vietnamese and Chinese that have no phonological change between two adjacent consonants. Korean is also different from English and Japanese that only have a connection with Korean in terms of assimilation depending on the place of articulation. Korean has the same phonological phenomenon as Hindi, however, in terms of consonantal assimilation sharing the manner of articulation between the two consonants in the sequence.
In the next section, we will consider how to teach pronunciation involving consonantal sequences to Korean language learners based on the discussion presented so far.
1 The case of obstruent-obstruent sequence is excluded in this article. In this case, the second consonant is realized as a tensed counterpart by the process of tensification, as shown in such examples as 국수kwukswu [kuks’u], 식당 siktang [sikd’aŋ], 옆집 yephcip [yəpc’ip], and so forth.