Abstract
Adnominal alienability splits typically involve a coding asymmetry: inalienable possessive constructions are shorter (or zero-coded) and/or more bound than alienable possessive constructions. This has been explained using one of two functional principles: iconicity (possessive constructions reflect differential conceptual distance) or economy (possessive constructions are the result of differential usage frequency). Alienability splits may also affect the coding of arguments in action nominal constructions. For this phenomenon only the iconicity explanation has been invoked, using the semantic notion of control. In the present paper, we investigate the merits of the alternative economy explanation for the cross-linguistic distribution of (in)alienable possessive coding of arguments in such nominalizations. Based on typological and corpus data, we conclude that the economy explanation covers the widest variety of typological generalizations concerning split possessive coding, in both underived NPs and derived action nominals.
Acknowledgments
We very gratefully acknowledge the collaboration of Kilu von Prince. She provided access to her Daakaka corpus, helped with the extraction of relevant data, checked the examples we use in this paper, and provided valuable comments on the general content of the paper. We would also like to thank the audiences of the DGfS Workshop on coding asymmetries (Saarbrücken, March 2017) and 50th SLE conference (Zürich, September 2017) for their feedback, and Vincent Vandeghinste for his advice on using the GrETEL interface for the Dutch corpus. Any remaining errors and shortcomings are the responsibility of the authors.
Abbreviations
- al
alienable possession
- art
article
- clf
classifier
- coll
collective
- cont
continuative aspect
- cop
copula
- dat
dative
- def
definite
- dem
demonstrative
- disc
discourse marker
- dist
distal
- du
dual
- erg
ergative
- f
feminine
- gen
genitive
- ger
gerund
- inal
inalienable possession
- ipfv
imperfective
- loc
locative
- m
masculine
- neg
negative
- nhum
non-human
- nmlz
nominalizer
- obj
object
- pl
plural
- poss
possessor
- pot
potential
- prep
preposition
- pfv
perfective
- prox
proximal
- rdp
reduplication
- real
realis
- semitr
semi-transitive
- sg
singular
- tr
transitive
- trans
transitive
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Appendix 1a
Data overview Oceanic languages (N=29).
| Language | P | SP | SA | A | Condition |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kwaio | in | in | in | in | |
| Puluwat | ? | in | in | in | |
| Sa’a | in | in | in | ? | |
| Mokilese | in | in | in | Ø | ‘descriptive’ nmlz, A=unexpressed |
| Manam | in | in | in | Ø | A=unexpressed |
| inc | in | in | in | A and P expressed | |
| Wuvulu | obl | ? | ? | in | |
| Lote | ? | sent+in | sent+in | sent+in | |
| Loniu | in | in | in | al? | |
| Pohnpeian | in | – | – | Ø | marked tr nmlz, A=unexpressed |
| Toqabaqita | in/sent | in | in | al | (P-marking lexically determined) |
| Kokota | in/sent/inc | in | in | al/sent | S=habitual |
| Mangap Mbula | in | ? | in | al | |
| Big Nambas | ? | in | in | al | |
| Woleaian | in | in | in/al | ? | unmarked nmlz |
| in | – | – | Ø | marked tr nmlz, A=unexpressed | |
| Longgu | in | in | in/al | ? | |
| Mekeo | in | in | in/al | always Ø? | unmarked nmlz |
| Mekeo | sent/inc | in | in/al | always Ø? | marked nmlz |
| NE Ambae | in | ? | in/al | al | |
| Saliba | in | in? | al | always Ø? | |
| Nêlêmwa | in | in | al | al | tr, SP=inherent |
| obl | al | al | obl | deTR, SP=temporary | |
| Kokota | in/sent/inc | al | al | al/sent | S=incidental |
| Kosraean | in | al | al | obl | |
| Vitu | ? | al | al | al | |
| Kove | in[34] | al | al | al/Ø | P=pro, A=unexpressed or P=N and A=AL |
| sent/obl | al | al | al/Ø | P=N, A=unexpressed or P=pro and A=AL | |
| Nalik | sent/inc | al | al | always Ø? | S=pro |
| Tawala | obl | ? | al | al | |
| Tamambo | obl | al | al | al | |
| Woleaian | sent | al | al | al | marked nmlz, S/A expressed |
| Pohnpeian | sent | al | al | al | unmarked nmlz |
| Mokilese | sent | al | al | al | unmarked nmlz |
| Whitesands | sent | al | al | al | |
| Engdewu | sent | al | al | al | |
| Tinrin | sent/al | al | al | al | S/A=2nd/3rd person |
| sent/al | sent/al | sent/al | sent/al | S/A=1st person | |
| Paamese | al | al | al | ? |
Appendix 1b
Genetic sub-grouping of Oceanic sample languages.
| 1st sub-group | 2nd sub-group | 3rd sub-group | Languages included |
|---|---|---|---|
| Admiralty Islands | Eastern | Loniu | |
| Western | Wuvulu | ||
| Central-Eastern Oceanic | Remote | Central Pacific | – (no coding asymmetry in possessive systems) |
| Loyalty Islands | – (no poss marking in ANCs?) | ||
| Micronesian | Pohnpeian, Puluwat, Woleaian, Mokilese, Kosraean | ||
| New Caledonian | Nêlêmwa, Tinrin | ||
| North & Central Vanuatu | Tamambo, North-East Ambae, Paamese, Big Nambas | ||
| South Vanuatu | Whitesands | ||
| Southeast Solomonic | Longgu, Kwaio, Sa’a, Toqabaqita | ||
| St.Matthias | – [insufficient info] | ||
| Temotu | Engdewu | ||
| Western Oceanic | Meso-Melanesian | Bali-Vitu | Vitu |
| New Ireland | Nalik, Kokota | ||
| Willaumez | – | ||
| North New Guinea | Huon Gulf | – | |
| Ngero-Vitiaz | Kove, Mangap Mbula, Lote | ||
| Sarmi-Jayapura Bay | – | ||
| Schouten | Manam | ||
| Papuan Tip | Nuclear | Tawala, Saliba | |
| Peripheral | Mekeo | ||
| Yapese (isolate) | no poss marking in ANCs |
Appendix 2a
Data overview non-Oceanic languages (N=32).
| Language | P | SP | SA | A | Condition |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Campa | sent | in(sent) | in(sent) | in(sent) | S/A=pro |
| Baure | sent | in(sent) | in(sent) | in(sent) | S/A=pro; P=N |
| Bororo | sent | in(sent) | in(sent) | in(sent) | S/A=pro; P=N |
| Haida | in(sent) | in(sent) | in(sent) | Ø | A=unexpressed |
| Ø | in(sent) | in(sent) | in(sent) | P=unexpressed | |
| Hup | sent | in(sent) | in(sent) | in(sent) | marked NMLZ |
| Maricopa | in(sent) | in | in | in | S/A/P=N |
| in(sent) | in(sent) | in(sent) | in(sent) | S/A/P=pro; P=3rd person | |
| Tommo So | sent | in | in | in | S/A=pro |
| West Greenlandic | sent | in | in | in | A and P=expressed, antipassive |
| Apinajé | in(sent) | in(sent) | in(sent) | sent | |
| Kayardild | sent | sent | sent | al | resultative nmlzs (and passive consequential nmlzs) |
| Karó | in(sent) | in(sent) | in(sent) | sent | |
| Luvale | sent | ? | ? | al | |
| Tiriyo | in | in | in | obl | |
| Trumai | in | in | in | sent | S/P=3rd pro |
| in(sent) | in(sent) | in(sent) | sent | S/P=1st/2nd person, N | |
| Wan | in | in | in | al | S/A/P=pro |
| Bambara | in(sent) | in(sent) | al | al | |
| Crow | in(sent) | in(sent) | sent | sent | |
| Lele | sent | inal | al | al | ‘A perspective’ |
| inal | inal | al | al | ‘P perspective’ | |
| Amele | sent | al | al | al | |
| Biak | sent | al | al | al | |
| Burushaski | in(sent) | sent | sent | sent | S/A/P=pro |
| Cavineña | sent | al | al | al | S/A=pro |
| Ewe | in | al | al | al | |
| Kharia | sent | al | al | al | |
| Lango | in(sent) | al | al | al | P=N |
| Macushi | in(sent) | sent | sent | sent | P=N |
| Puyuma | sent | al | al | al | |
| Tamashek | obl | al | al | al | A=expressed; P=N |
| Tigrinya | in | al | al | al | S/A/P=N |
| Tommo So | al(sent/inc) | al | al | al | ‘gerunds’ |
| Maltese | al | al | al | obl | A=N |
| al | al | al | al | S/A/P=N | |
| Biak | ? | obl | obl | obl | (minor pattern) |
| Paumarí | ? | al | al | al | marked ANCs |
| Tamashek | al | al | al | Ø | A=unexpressed |
| Tommo So | al | – | – | Ø | A=unexpressed, TR ‘gerund’ |
| Wari’ | Ø | al | al | al | P=unexpressed |
| inc | Ø | Ø | Ø | S/A=unexpressed | |
| West Greenlandic | in | in | in | Ø | A=unexpressed, tr/passive |
N.B. The formal identity of inalienable and sentential indexes (employed for SPs and Ps in ANCs) applies onto to a subset of inalienable nouns (all internal body parts); other inalienable nouns receive a unique index-set (Helmbrecht 2016: 440).
Appendix 2b
Genetic affiliation and macro-area spread of non-Oceanic sample languages
| Eurasia | ||
| – | Burushaski | (isolate) |
| – | Maltese | (Afro-Asiatic, Semitic) |
| – | Kharia | (Austro-Asiatic, Munda) |
| Africa | ||
| – | Bambara | (Mande, Western Mande) |
| – | Ewe | (Niger-Congo, Kwa) |
| – | Luvale | (Niger-Congo, Bantoid) |
| – | Lango | (Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic) |
| – | Lele | (Afro-Asiatic, East Chadic) |
| – | Tamashek | (Afro-Asiatic, Berber) |
| – | Tigrinya | (Afro-Asiatic, Semitic) |
| – | Tommo So | (Dogon) |
| North America | ||
| – | Crow | (Siouan, Core Siouan) |
| – | Haida | (Haida) |
| – | Maricopa | (Hokan, Yuman) |
| – | West Greenlandic | (Eskimo-Aleut, Eskimo) |
| South America | ||
| – | Campa (Axininca) | (Arawakan, Pre-Andine Arawakan) |
| – | Baure | (Arawakan, Bolivia-Parana) |
| – | Bororo | (isolate) |
| – | Apinayé | (Macro-Ge, Ge-Kaingang) |
| – | Cavineña | (Tacanan) |
| – | Hup | (Nadahup) |
| – | Karó (Arára) | (Tupian, Ramarama) |
| – | Macushi | (Cariban) |
| – | Tiriyo (Trio) | (Cariban) |
| – | Paumarí | (Arauan) |
| – | Trumai | (isolate) |
| – | Urarina | (isolate) |
| – | Wari’ | (Chapacura-Wanham) |
| Australia | ||
| – | Kayardild | (Tangic) |
| Papunesia | ||
| – | Amele | (Trans-New Guinea, Madang) |
| – | Biak | (Austronesian, South Halmahera – West New Guinea) |
| – | Puyuma | (Austronesian, Puyuma) |
Appendix 3
Overview of monovalent and bivalent verbs
Dutch:
Monovalent active verbs: kantklossen ‘make.lace’, lopen ‘walk’, poseren ‘pose’, praten ‘talk’, vrijen ‘make.love’, zitten ‘sit’, theedrinken ‘drink.tea’, lesgeven ‘teach’, wielrennen ‘cycle’, zwijgen ‘be.silent (e.g. of someone)’, samenleven ‘live.together’, snacken ‘snack’, worstelen ‘wrestle’, optreden ‘perform’, aftreden ‘resign’, rekeningrijden ‘pay.as.you.drive’, zingen ‘sing’, zwemmen ‘swim’, (allround)schaatsen ‘(all.round).iceskate’, kunstrijden ‘figure.skate’, beleggen ‘invest’, voetballen ‘play.soccer’, werken ‘work’, spelen ‘play’, voorzingen ‘audit’, functioneren ‘function (of someone)’, vliegen ‘fly’, kamperen ‘camp’, sporten ‘sport’, spreken ‘speak’, studeren ‘study’, aansluiten ‘fit.in’, schaken ‘play.chess’, skiën ‘ski’, pianostemmen ‘tune piano’s’, bloemschikken ‘arrange.flowers’, snoepen ‘munch’, dansen ‘dance’, kniezen ‘pout’, terugspelen ‘play.back’, staan ‘stand’, uitverdedigen ‘defend’, handelen ‘act’, tennissen ‘play.tennis’, trainen ‘train’, fietsen ‘cycle’, snowboarden ‘snowboard’, golfen ‘play.golf’, afzwemmen ‘swim.down’, klussen ‘do.odd.jobs’, afvallen ‘lose.weight’, verhuizen ‘move’, tae-boën ‘do.tae-bo’, tellen ‘count’, wandelen ‘walk’, springen ‘jump’, terugkomen ‘return’, squashen ‘play.squash’, vertrekken ‘leave’, oefenen ‘practice’, treuren ‘grieve’, opstaan ‘get.up’, koppen ‘head.in’, schilderen ‘paint’, stemmen ‘vote’.
Monovalent stative verbs: bestaan ‘exist’, klikken ‘click’ (e.g. of heels), klappen ‘snap (e.g. of a whip)’, malen ‘run.in.one’s.head’, lijden ‘suffer’, kolken ‘swirl’, totstandkomen ‘realise’, ontstaan ‘arise’, zijn ‘be’, lachen ‘laugh’, aanblijven ‘stay.on’, afnemen ‘diminish’, neerkomen ‘come.down’, verschijnen ‘appear’, uitbreken ‘break.out’, gebeuren ‘happen’, functioneren ‘function (e.g. of one’s powers)’, pitten ‘sleep’, bonzen ‘pound’, zwijgen ‘be.silent (e.g. of a weapon)’, doorgaan ‘continue’, overlijden ‘die’, zweven ‘float’, meanderen ‘meander’, dalen ‘descend’, ademen ‘breathe’, overgaan ‘pass’, vallen ‘fall’, roken ‘smoke (e.g. of a chimney)’, voortbestaan ‘continue.to.exist’, ontbreken ‘be.lacking’, falen ‘fail’, uitvallen ‘breakdown’, krimpen ‘shrink’, slapen ‘sleep’, centrifugeren ‘spin.dry’, neerstorten ‘crash.down’.
Bivalent verbs: blootleggen ‘expose’, wachten (op) ‘wait (for)’, schrijven ‘write’, bevatten ‘contain’, lezen ‘read’, terugblikken (op) ‘look.back (on)’, ontwaren ‘perceive’, plegen ‘commit’, ontwikkelen ‘develop’, opsluiten ‘lock.up’, ontvluchten ‘escape’, verwelkomen ‘welcome’, ronselen ‘crimp’, uitwuiven ‘wave.goodbye’, zien ‘see’, verdelen ‘divide’, schoonmaken ‘clean’, afnemen ‘take (a statement)’, drinken ‘drink’, innemen ‘swallow’, planten ‘plant’, verkrijgen ‘obtain’, verzamelen ‘collect’, keuren ‘inspect’, onttrekken ‘extract’, promoten ‘promote’, opzetten ‘set.up’, creëren ‘create’, kopen ‘buy’, vinden ‘find’, aanbieden ‘offer’, opsturen ‘send’, optimaliseren ‘optimize’, stimuleren ‘stimulate’, maken ‘make’, vertalen ‘translate’, presenteren ‘present’, binnenhalen ‘obtain’, aangeven ‘pinpoint’, in stand laten ‘maintain’, opstellen ‘draft’, totstandbrengen ‘realise’, bijwonen ‘attend’, doen ‘do’, opnemen (in) ‘include (in)’, doorgeven ‘pass.on’, brengen ‘bring’, samenwerken (met) ‘work.together (with)’, bestrijden ‘fight’, offeren ‘offer’, uitdelen ‘hand.out’, aangaan ‘enter.into’, voorkomen ‘avoid’, aanleggen ‘start’, blussen ‘put.out’, eten ‘eat’, begaan ‘commit’, inschrijven (voor) ‘sign.up (for)’, nablussen ‘complete.extinction’, overmaken ‘transfer’, achtervolgen ‘chase’, roken ‘smoke (e.g. of a sigarette)’, meetellen ‘count’, ruimen ‘clear.away’, opruimen ‘clear.out’, aanpakken ‘handle’, toedienen ‘administer’, afmaken ‘put.down’, ombouwen ‘convert’, lossen ‘unload’, aanranden ‘assault’, aanbieden ‘offer’, bouwen ‘build’, trouwen ‘marry’, weghalen ‘remove’, oormerken ‘earmark’, inleveren ‘turn.in’, leeghalen ‘empty.out’, meedoen ‘enter.into’, voorschrijven ‘prescribe’, meewerken (met) ‘work (with)’, tekenen (voor) ‘sign (for)’, weren ‘bar’, winnen ‘win’, (door)jagen (op) ‘hunt (for)’, streven (naar) ‘strive (for)’, afronden ‘finish’, uitwerken ‘work.out’, aanwerven ‘recruit’, opstarten ‘start.up’, verscherpen ‘sharpen’, aanwenden ‘employ’, uitwisselen ‘exchange’, in elkaar schuiven ‘bring.together’, bundelen ‘gather’, wegwerken ‘clear.away’, oplossen ‘resolve’, wegnemen ‘take.away’, uitkeren ‘pay.out’, beheren ‘manage’, toedelen ‘hand.out’, liquideren ‘liquidate’, kweken ‘grow’, beluisteren ‘listen.to’, nadenken (over) ‘think (about)’, zoeken (naar) ‘search (for)’, gaan (naar) ‘go (to)’, afstaan ‘give.up’, toegroeien (naar) ‘grow (towards)’, vastleggen ‘record’, begraven ‘bury’, bezoeken ‘visit’, oprapen ‘pick.up’, afstemmen ‘fine-tune’, loskomen ‘be.freed.from’, lassen ‘weld’, bevorderen ‘promote’, opzoeken ‘look.up’, aanduiden ‘indicate’, hebben ‘have’, aankopen ‘purchase’, bezichtigen ‘view’, begeleiden ‘counsel’, besteden ‘spend’, inchecken ‘check.in’, verengelsen ‘anglicise’, zagen ‘saw’, verliezen ‘lose’, respecteren ‘respect’, beantwoorden ‘answer’, wassen ‘wash’, typen ‘type’, gooien ‘throw’, neuriën ‘hum’, reflecteren (op) ‘reflect (on)’, uitproberen ‘try.out’, voorspellen ‘predict’, goedkeuren ‘approve’, achterhalen ‘discover’, pleiten (voor) ‘plead (for)’, vechten (tegen) ‘fight (against)’, invoeren ‘introduce’, vetmesten ‘fatten’, gedogen ‘tolerate’, namaken ‘forge’, opleiden ‘educate’, neerslaan ‘knock.down’, op voorraad nemen ‘stock.up’, corrigeren ‘correct’, uitpluizen ‘unravel’, dragen ‘wear’, uitknippen ‘cut.out’, opengooien ‘open.up’, verbouwen ‘renovate’, realiseren ‘realise’, repeteren ‘rehearse’, spelen ‘play (e.g. cards or a game)’, ontzien ‘be.lenient.with’, bellen ‘call’, bereiden ‘prepare’, afsteken ‘set.off’, koken ‘cook’, teruggaan (in) ‘return (to)’, benutten ‘use’, bombarderen ‘bomb’, inkopen ‘buy’, ontsluiten ‘open.up’, handhaven ‘maintain’, benoemen ‘appoint’, leren ‘learn’, initiëren ‘initiate’, kijken (naar) ‘watch’, trekken ‘draw (e.g. of a conclusion)’, omgaan (met) ‘deal (with)’, opblazen ‘blow.up’, aanpassen ‘adapt’, indienen ‘hand.in’, afschaffen ‘dispense’, vergroten ‘enlarge’, verzwijgen ‘hold.back’, produceren ‘produce’, constateren ‘establish’, tekortkomen ‘lack’, leven ‘live (e.g. off donations), beschermen ‘protect’, afgraven ‘dig.off’, reciteren ‘recite’, dicteren ‘dictate’, verkopen ‘sell’, opgeven ‘report’, bespreken ‘discuss’, volgen ‘follow’, afwassen ‘wash.away (e.g. sins)’, denken ‘think’.
Daakaka:
Monovalent active verbs[35]: pwer ‘stay’, bwye ‘sing’, kolir ‘sing’, tas ‘sit’, bap ‘dance’, bang ‘play’, kuo ‘run’, kye ‘shout’, gyes ‘work’, oko ‘move’, pyalir ‘negotiate’, lyung ‘bathe’, sóró ‘speak’, ‘bwii ‘pray’, lu ‘perform.a.rite’, padó ‘fish’, pon ‘whistle’.
Monovalent stative verbs: myaek ‘get.dark’, sukuo ‘be.good/together’, du ‘stay, exist’, mese ‘be.ill’, win ‘win’, yes ‘be.strong’, mweilli ‘be.small’, myató ‘be.old’, vu ‘be.happy’, liyes ‘suffer’.
Bivalent verbs[36]: dimyane ‘want’, yungta ‘listen.to’, seka ‘harvest’, kyes ‘wash’, pweli ‘bake’, en ‘eat’, yas ‘steal’, tebwesye ‘begin/start.something’, le ‘marry’, tuuli ‘try’, min ‘drink’, kuowilye ‘know’, kekyer ‘scoop.out’, punguor ‘look.for(.shellfish’), liye ‘take’, un ‘clear’, sene ‘hook’, kyenkyen ‘hurt’.
© 2018 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
