Abstract
Diagnostic imaging (DI) refers to techniques and methods of creating images of the body’s internal parts and organs with or without the use of ionizing radiation, for purposes of diagnosing, monitoring and characterizing diseases. By default, DI equipment are technology based and in recent times, there has been widespread automation of DI operations in high-income countries while low and middle-income countries (LMICs) are yet to gain traction in automated DI. Advanced DI techniques employ artificial intelligence (AI) protocols to enable imaging equipment perceive data more accurately than humans do, and yet automatically or under expert evaluation, make clinical decisions such as diagnosis and characterization of diseases. In this narrative review, SWOT analysis is used to examine the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats associated with the deployment of AI-based DI protocols in LMICs. Drawing from this analysis, a case is then made to justify the need for widespread AI applications in DI in resource-poor settings. Among other strengths discussed, AI-based DI systems could enhance accuracies in diagnosis, monitoring, characterization of diseases and offer efficient image acquisition, processing, segmentation and analysis procedures, but may have weaknesses regarding the need for big data, huge initial and maintenance costs, and inadequate technical expertise of professionals. They present opportunities for synthetic modality transfer, increased access to imaging services, and protocol optimization; and threats of input training data biases, lack of regulatory frameworks and perceived fear of job losses among DI professionals. The analysis showed that successful integration of AI in DI procedures could position LMICs towards achievement of universal health coverage by 2030/2035. LMICs will however have to learn from the experiences of advanced settings, train critical staff in relevant areas of AI and proceed to develop in-house AI systems with all relevant stakeholders onboard.
-
Author contributions: All the authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this submitted manuscript and approved submission.
-
Research funding: None declared.
-
Conflict of interest statement: The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding this article.
Summary of SWOT analysis of AI in diagnostic imaging in the developing world.
Strengths | Weaknesses | Opportunities | Threats |
---|---|---|---|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
References
1. Raso, FA, Hilligoss, H, Krishnamurthy, V, Bavitz, C, Kim, L. Artificial intelligence & human rights: opportunities & risks. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, US: Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society; 2018:2018–6 pp.10.2139/ssrn.3259344Search in Google Scholar
2. Frija, G, Blažić, I, Frush, DP, Hierath, M, Kawooya, M, Donoso-Bach, L, et al.. How to improve access to medical imaging in low-and middle-income countries? EClinical Med 2021;38:101034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.101034.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
3. Hricak, H, Abdel-Wahab, M, Atun, R, Lette, MM, Paez, D, Brink, JA, et al.. Medical imaging and nuclear medicine: a lancet oncology commission. Lancet Oncol 2021;22:e136–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1470-2045(20)30751-8.Search in Google Scholar
4. Guo, J, Li, B. The application of medical artificial intelligence technology in rural areas of developing countries. Health Equity 2018;2:174–81. https://doi.org/10.1089/heq.2018.0037.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
5. Fale, MI. Dr. Flynxz–A First Aid Mamdani-Sugeno-type fuzzy expert system for differential symptoms-based diagnosis. J King Saud Univ Comput Inf Sci 2020;34:1138–149.10.1016/j.jksuci.2020.04.016Search in Google Scholar
6. Wahl, B, Cossy-Gantner, A, Germann, S, Schwalbe, NR. Artificial intelligence (AI) and global health: how can AI contribute to health in resource-poor settings? BMJ Global Health 2018;3:e000798. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2018-000798.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
7. Smith, ML, Neupane, S. Artificial intelligence and human development: toward a research agenda. In: White Paper. International Development Research Centre (IDRC); 2018. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/10625/56949 [Accessed 31 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
8. World Health Organization (WHO). Ethics and governance of artificial intelligence for health: WHO guidance. value="WHO"Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2021.Search in Google Scholar
9. Hamet, P, Tremblay, J. Artificial intelligence in medicine. Metabolism 2017;69:S36–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2017.01.011.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
10. Lee, EJ, Kim, YH, Kim, N, Kang, DW. Deep into the brain: artificial intelligence in stroke imaging. J Stroke 2017;19:277–85. https://doi.org/10.5853/jos.2017.02054.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
11. Krittanawong, C, Zhang, H, Wang, Z, Aydar, M, Kitai, T. Artificial intelligence in precision cardiovascular medicine. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017;69:2657–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2017.03.571.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
12. Gwagwa, A, Kraemer-Mbula, E, Rizk, N, Rutenberg, I, De Beer, J. Artificial Intelligence (AI) deployments in Africa: benefits, challenges and policy dimensions. Afr J Comput Ict 2020;26:1–28. https://doi.org/10.23962/10539/30361.Search in Google Scholar
13. Mitchell, TM. Machine learning. New York City, United States: McGraw-Hill Higher Education; 1997.Search in Google Scholar
14. Sutton, RS, Barto, AG. Introduction to reinforcement learning. Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States: MIT Press; 1998:1054 pp.10.1109/TNN.1998.712192Search in Google Scholar
15. LeCun, Y, Bengio, Y, Hinton, G. Deep learning. Nature 2015;521:436–44. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14539.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
16. Poole, DL, Mackworth, AK. Artificial Intelligence: foundations of computational agents. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press; 2010.10.1017/CBO9780511794797Search in Google Scholar
17. Goertzel, B. Artificial general intelligence. Pennachin, C, editor. New York: Springer; 2007.10.1007/978-3-540-68677-4Search in Google Scholar
18. Pennachin, C, Goertzel, B. Contemporary approaches to artificial general intelligence. In: Artificial general intelligence. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2007:1–30 pp.10.1007/978-3-540-68677-4_1Search in Google Scholar
19. Harfouche, A, Saba, P, Aoun, G, Wamba, SF. Guest editorial: cutting-edge technologies for the development of Asian countries. J Asia Bus Stud 2022;16:225–9. https://doi.org/10.1108/jabs-04-2022-494.Search in Google Scholar
20. De Dombal, FT, Hartley, JR, Sleeman, DH. A computer-assisted system for learning clinical diagnosis. Lancet 1969;293:145–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(69)91149-0.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
21. Horrocks, JC, McCann, AP, Staniland, JR, Leaper, DJ, De Dombal, FT. Computer-aided diagnosis: description of an adaptable system, and operational experience with 2,034 cases. Br Med J 1972;2:5–9. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.5804.5.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
22. Shortliffe, EH, editor. Computer-based medical consultations: MYCIN. New York: Elsevier; 2012.Search in Google Scholar
23. Warner, HR, Toronto, AF, Veasey, LG, Stephenson, R. A mathematical approach to medical diagnosis: application to congenital heart disease. J Am Med Assoc 1961;177:177–83. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1961.03040290005002.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
24. Miller, DD, Brown, EW. Artificial intelligence in medical practice: the question to the answer? Am J Med 2018;131:129–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2017.10.035.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
25. Shafer, GJ, Singh, H, Thomas, EJ, Thammasitboon, S, Gautham, KS. Frequency of diagnostic errors in the neonatal intensive care unit: a retrospective cohort study. J Perinatol 2022:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41372-022-01359-9.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
26. Bera, K, Schalper, KA, Rimm, DL, Velcheti, V, Madabhushi, A. Artificial intelligence in digital pathology—new tools for diagnosis and precision oncology. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2019;16:703–15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41571-019-0252-y.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
27. Lekadir, K, Mutsvangwa, T, Lazrak, N, Zahir, J, Cintas, C, El Hassouni, M, et al.. From MICCAI to AFRICAI: African network for artificial intelligence in biomedical imaging. ICLR; 2022. Available from: https://pml4dc.github.io/iclr2022/pdf/PML4DC_ICLR2022_12.pdf [Accessed 30 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
28. Lambin, P, Leijenaar, RT, Deist, TM, Peerlings, J, De Jong, EE, Van Timmeren, J, et al.. Radiomics: the bridge between medical imaging and personalized medicine. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2017;14:749–62. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrclinonc.2017.141.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
29. Kaissis, GA, Makowski, MR, Rückert, D, Braren, RF. Secure, privacy-preserving and federated machine learning in medical imaging. Nat Mach Intell 2020;2:305–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-020-0186-1.Search in Google Scholar
30. De Bruyn, A, Viswanathan, V, Beh, YS, Brock, JK, von Wangenheim, F. Artificial intelligence and marketing: pitfalls and opportunities. J Interact Market 2020;51:91–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intmar.2020.04.007.Search in Google Scholar
31. Sahiner, B, Chan, HP, Hadjiiski, LM, Cascade, PN, Kazerooni, EA, Chughtai, AR, et al.. Effect of CAD on radiologists’ detection of lung nodules on thoracic CT scans: analysis of an observer performance study by nodule size. Acad Radiol 2009;16:1518–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acra.2009.08.006.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
32. van Ginneken, B, Hogeweg, L, Prokop, M. Computer-Aided diagnosis in chest radiography: beyond nodules. Eur J Radiol 2009;72:226–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrad.2009.05.061.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
33. Morton, MJ, Whaley, DH, Brandt, KR, Amrami, KK. Screening mammograms: interpretation with computer-aided detection--prospective evaluation. Radiology 2006;239:375–83. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2392042121.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
34. Litjens, G, Kooi, T, Bejnordi, BE, Setio, AAA, Ciompi, F, Ghafoorian, M, et al.. A survey on deep learning in medical image analysis. Med Image Anal 2017;42:60–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.media.2017.07.005.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
35. Nichols, JA, Herbert Chan, HW, Baker, MAB. Machine learning: applications of artificial intelligence to imaging and diagnosis. Biophys Rev 2019;11:111–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12551-018-0449-9.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
36. Hardy, M, Harvey, H. Artificial intelligence in diagnostic imaging: impact on the radiography profession. Br J Radiol Suppl 2020;93:20190840. https://doi.org/10.1259/bjr.20190840.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
37. Syed, AB, Zoga, AC. value="Artificial intelligence"Artificial intelligence in radiology: current technology and future directions. In: Seminars in muscoskelosketal radiology. New York City, United States: Thieme Medical Publishers; 2018, vol. 22:540–5 pp.10.1055/s-0038-1673383Search in Google Scholar PubMed
38. Ahn, SY, Chae, KJ, Goo, JM. The potential role of grid-like software in bedside chest radiography in improving image quality and dose reduction: an observer preference study. Korean J Radiol 2018;19:526–33. https://doi.org/10.3348/kjr.2018.19.3.526.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
39. Wuni, AR, Botwe, BO, Akudjedu, TN. Impact of artificial intelligence on clinical radiography practice: futuristic prospects in a low resource setting. Radiography 2021;27:S69–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2021.07.021.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
40. Sarsby, A. SWOT analysis. Lulu. com; 2016. Available from: https://books.google.com.gh/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Yrp3DQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Alan+sarsby+swot+analysis&ots=ODoeZuz2ZE&sig=unXr10T13IdbmibkxOFkZA4tfe8&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Alan%20sarsby%20swot%20analysis&f=false [Accessed 31 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
41. Murry, W. Strength, weakness, opportunity, and threat (SWOT) analysis. Investopedia; 2021. Available from: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/swot.asp [Accessed 31 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
42. Davenport, TH, Hongsermeier, TM, Kimberly Alba Mc, Cord, KA. Using AI to improve electronic health records; 2018. Available from: https://hbr.org/2018/12/using-ai-to-improve-electronic-health-records [Accessed 25 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
43. Lin, D, Lin, H. Translating artificial intelligence into clinical practice. Ann Transl Med 2020;8:715. https://doi.org/10.21037/atm.2019.11.110.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
44. Curtis, C, Liu, C, Bollerman, TJ, Pianykh, OS. Machine learning for predicting patient wait times and appointment delays. J Am Coll Radiol 2018;15:1310–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacr.2017.08.021.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
45. McNemar, E. Adopting AI to improve patient outcomes, cost, savings, health equality. Health IT Analytics: Quality and governance news; 2022. Available from: https://healthitanalytics.com/news/adopting-ai-to-improve-patient-outcomes-cost-savings-health-equality [Accessed 20 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
46. Drexel University. Pros & cons of artificial intelligence in medicine; 2021. Available from: https://drexel.edu/cci/stories/artificial-intelligence-in-medicine-pros-and-cons/ [Accessed 23 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
47. Intrex Group. Artificial intelligence in radiology - use cases and trends. Available from: https://itrexgroup.com/blog/artificial-intelligence-in-radiology-use-cases-predictions/#header [Accessed 20 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
48. McNemar, E. Top opportunities for artificial intelligence to improve cancer care. In: Health IT analytics: features. 2021 Nov 29. Available from: https://healthitanalytics.com/features/top-opportunities-for-artificial-intelligence-to-improve-cancer-care [Accessed 24 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
49. Pesapane, F, Codari, M, Sardanelli, F. Artificial intelligence in medical imaging: threat or opportunity? Radiologists again at the forefront of innovation in medicine. Eur Radiol Exp 2018;2:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41747-018-0061-6.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
50. Chetty, S, Venter, D, Speelman, A. Determining the need for after-hours diagnostic radiological reporting in emergency departments at public hospitals in South Africa: perceptions of emergency physicians in KwaZulu-Natal. J Med Imag Radiat Sci 2020;51:470–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmir.2020.06.007.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
51. McNemar, E. Benefits of artificial intelligence to radiology workflows. Health IT analytics: News.; 2019. Available from: https://healthitanalytics.com/news/benefits-of-artificial-intelligence-to-radiology-workflows [Accessed 20 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
52. Hamdi, Y, Abdeljaoued-Tej, I, Zatchi, AA, Abdelhak, S, Boubaker, S, Brown, JS, et al.. Cancer in africa: the untold story. Front Oncol 2021;11:650117. https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2021.650117.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
53. Marti-Bonmati, L, Koh, DM, Riklund, K, Bobowicz, M, Roussakis, Y, Vilanova, JC, et al.. Considerations for artificial intelligence clinical impact in oncologic imaging: an AI4HI position paper. Insights Imaging 2022;13:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13244-022-01220-9.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
54. Coppola, F, Faggioni, L, Gabelloni, M, De Vietro, F, Mendola, V, Cattabriga, A, et al.. Human, all too human? An all-around appraisal of the “Artificial Intelligence Revolution” in medical imaging. Front Psychol 2021;12:710982. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.710982.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
55. Ahuja, AS. The impact of artificial intelligence in medicine on the future role of the physician. PeerJ 2019;7:e7702. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7702.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
56. Do, HM, Spear, LG, Nikpanah, M, Mirmomen, SM, Machado, LB, Toscano, AP, et al.. Augmented radiologist workflow improves report value and saves time: a potential model for implementation of artificial intelligence. Acad Radiol 2020;27:96–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acra.2019.09.014.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
57. Gore, JC. Artificial intelligence in medical imaging. Magn Reson Imag 2020;68:A1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mri.2019.12.006.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
58. Kulkarni, S, Jha, S. Artificial intelligence, radiology, and tuberculosis: a review. Acad Radiol 2020;27:71–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acra.2019.10.003.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
59. Iezzi, R, Goldberg, SN, Merlino, B, Posa, A, Valentini, V, Manfredi, R. Artificial intelligence in interventional radiology: a literature review and future perspectives. J Oncol 2019;2019:6153041. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6153041.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
60. Nensa, F, Demircioglu, A, Rischpler, C. Artificial intelligence in nuclear medicine. J Nucl Med 2019;60:29S–37. https://doi.org/10.2967/jnumed.118.220590.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
61. Gregory, J, Welliver, S, Chong, J. Top 10 reviewer critiques of radiology artificial intelligence (AI) articles: qualitative thematic analysis of reviewer critiques of machine learning/deep learning manuscripts submitted to JMRI. J Magn Reson Imag 2020;52:248–54. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmri.27035.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
62. Belfiore, MP, Urraro, F, Grassi, R, Giacobbe, G, Patelli, G, Cappabianca, S, et al.. Artificial intelligence to codify lung CT in Covid-19 patients. La Radiologia Med 2020;125:500–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11547-020-01195-x.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
63. Kamiński, MF, Hassan, C, Bisschops, R, Pohl, J, Pellisé, M, Dekker, E, et al.. Advanced imaging for detection and differentiation of colorectal neoplasia: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) Guideline. Endoscopy 2014;46:435–57. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1365348.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
64. Antwi, WK, Akudjedu, TN, Botwe, BO. Artificial intelligence in medical imaging practice in Africa: a qualitative content analysis study of radiographers’ perspectives. Insights Imaging 2021;12:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13244-021-01028-z.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
65. Mollura, DJ, Culp, MP, Pollack, E, Battino, G, Scheel, JR, Mango, VL, et al.. Artificial intelligence in low- and middle-income countries: innovating global health radiology. Radiology 2020;297:513–20. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2020201434.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
66. Carrillo Larco, R, Tudor Car, L, Pearson-Stuttard, J, Panch, T, Miranda, JJ, Atun, R. Machine learning health-related applications in low-income and middle-income countries: a scoping review protocol. BMJ Open 2020;10:e035983. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-035983.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
67. Mollura, DJ, Lugossy, AM. RAD-AID: fostering opportunities to impact global health with technology. Appl Radiol 2021;50:36–7. https://doi.org/10.37549/ar2777.Search in Google Scholar
68. Dzobo, K, Adotey, S, Thomford, NE, Dzobo, W. Integrating artificial and human intelligence: a partnership for responsible innovation in biomedical engineering and medicine. OMICS A J Integr Biol 2020;24:247–63. https://doi.org/10.1089/omi.2019.0038.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
69. Gong, B, Nugent, JP, Guest, W, Parker, W, Chang, PJ, Khosa, F, et al.. Influence of artificial intelligence on Canadian medical students’ preference for radiology specialty: a national survey study. Acad Radiol 2019;26:566–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acra.2018.10.007.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
70. Savadjiev, P, Chong, J, Dohan, A, Vakalopoulou, M, Reinhold, C, Paragios, N, et al.. Demystification of AI-driven medical image interpretation: past, present and future. Eur Radiol 2019;29:1616–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-018-5674-x.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
71. van Hoek, J, Huber, A, Leichtle, A, Härmä, K, Hilt, D, von Tengg-Kobligk, H, et al.. A survey on the future of radiology among radiologists, medical students and surgeons: students and surgeons tend to be more skeptical about artificial intelligence and radiologists may fear that other disciplines take over. Eur J Radiol 2019;121:108742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrad.2019.108742.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
72. Patuzzi, J. Big data, AI look set to come under scrutiny at ECR 2018; 2017. Available from: https://www.auntminnieeurope.com/index.aspx?sec=rca&sub=ecr_2018&pag=dis&ItemID=614795 [Accessed 24 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
73. Casey, B, Yee, KM, Ridley, EL, Forrest, W, Kim, A. Top 5 trends from RSNA 2017 in Chicago; 2017. Available from: https://www.auntminnie.com/index.aspx?sec=rca&sub=rsna_2017&pag=dis&ItemID=119393 [Accessed 25 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
74. Ward, P, Ridley, E, Forrest, W, Moan, R. Top 5 trends from ECR 2018 in Vienna; 2018. Available from: https://www.auntminnie.com/index.aspx?sec=rca&sub=ecr_2018&pag=dis&ItemID=120195 [Accessed 25 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
75. Waller, J, O’Connor, A, Rafaat, E, Amireh, A, Dempsey, J, Martin, C, et al.. Applications and challenges of artificial intelligence in diagnostic and interventional radiology. Pol J Radiol 2022;87:113–7. https://doi.org/10.5114/pjr.2022.113531.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
76. Ngwa, W, Addai, BW, Adewole, I, Ainsworth, V, Alaro, J, Alatise, OI, et al.. Cancer in sub-saharan africa: a lancet oncology commission. Lancet Oncol 2022;S1470–2045:00720–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1470-2045(21)00720-8.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
77. International, G. Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization; 2021. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr [Accessed 25 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
78. Chang, YW, An, JK, Choi, N, Ko, KH, Kim, KH, Han, K, et al.. Artificial intelligence for breast cancer screening in mammography (AI-STREAM): a prospective multicenter study design in Korea using AI-based CADe/x. J Breast Cancer 2022;25:57. https://doi.org/10.4048/jbc.2022.25.e4.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
79. Lunit. AI-assisted radiologists can detect more breast cancer with reduced false-positive recall. Available from: https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/ai-assisted-radiologists-can-detect-more-breast-cancer-with-reduced-false-positive-recall-301001971.html [Accessed 20 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
80. Yee, KM. How AI can help improve hip fracture diagnosis. AuntMinnieEurope.com. Available from: https://www.auntminnieeurope.com/index.aspx?sec=ser&sub=def&pag=dis&ItemID= 619096 [Accessed 22 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
81. Cheng, CT, Ho, TY, Lee, TY, Chang, CC, Chou, CC, Chen, CC, et al.. Application of a deep learning algorithm for detection and visualization of hip fractures on plain pelvic radiographs. Eur Radiol 2019;29:5469–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-019-06167-y.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
82. Han, DH. FDA approves AI algorithm that helps detect wrist fracture. MPR; 2018. Available from: https://www.empr.com/home/news/fda-approves-ai-algorithm-that-helps-detect-wrist-fractures/ [Accessed 20 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
83. de la Fuente Garcia, S, Ritchie, CW, Luz, S. Artificial intelligence, speech, and language processing approaches to monitoring Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review. J Alzheim Dis 2020;78:1547–74. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-200888.Search in Google Scholar
84. MENA’s, TH. First free diagnostic tool for COVID-19 using AI in medical images. In: Omnia health; 2020. Available from: https://insights.omnia-health.com/radiology/menas-first-free-diagnostic-tool-covid-19-using-ai-medical-images [Accessed 22 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
85. Philips Foundation. Philips Foundation deploys AI software in South Africa to detect and monitor COVID-19 using chest x-rays. 2021 Mar 25. Available from: https://www.philips-foundation.com/a-w/articles/CAD4COVID.html [Accessed 25 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
86. Khoury, K. Deep AI imaging diagnostics help doctors prioritise care. In: Springwise: health and wellbeing; 2022. Available from: https://www.springwise.com/innovation/health-wellbeing/deep-ai-scans-xrays-for-signs-of-disease [Accessed 24 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
87. Imaging Technology News. Oxipit partners with healthCre Konnect to bring AI diagnostics to Africa. News: Artificial intelligence. Available from: https://www.itnonline.com/content/oxipit-partners-healthcare-konnect-bring-ai-diagnostics-africa [Accessed 26 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
88. Laghmari, S. Artificial intelligence, a key tool to improve the African health system. In: Infomineo: African health system. Available from: https://infomineo.com/artificial-intelligence-a-key-tool-to-improve-the-african-health-system/ [Accessed 23 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
89. Eliyatkın, N, Yalçın, E, Zengel, B, Aktaş, S, Vardar, E. Molecular classification of breast carcinoma: from traditional, old-fashioned way to a new age, and a new way. Eur J Breast Health 2015;11:59. https://doi.org/10.5152/tjbh.2015.1669.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
90. Fox, M. Brain cancer is now the leading cancer killer of kids. Health news; 2016. Available from: https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/brain-cancer-now-leading-cancer-killer-kids-n649411 [Accessed 22 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
91. McGinley, L. Brain cancer replaces leukemia as the leading cause of cancer deaths in kids. The Washington Post: Health; 2016. Available from: https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/to-your-health/wp/2016/09/16/brain-cancer-replaces-leukemia-as-the-leading-cause-of-cancer-deaths-in-kids/ [Accessed 22 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
92. World Health Organization. Childhood cancer. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer-in-children [Accessed 23 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
93. McNemar, E. Artificial intelligence bolsters colorectal cancer detection. In: Health IT analytics: tools and strategies news. 2021 Nov 4. Available from: https://healthitanalytics.com/news/artificial-intelligence-bolsters-colorectal-cancer-detection [Accessed 24 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
94. Krupinski, EA. Current perspectives in medical image perception. Atten Percept Psycho 2010;72:1205–17. https://doi.org/10.3758/app.72.5.1205.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
95. Renard, F, Guedria, S, Palma, ND, Vuillerme, N. Variability and reproducibility in deep learning for medical image segmentation. Sci Rep 2020;10:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-69920-0.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
96. Chen, R, Wang, M, Lai, Y. Analysis of the role and robustness of artificial intelligence in commodity image recognition under deep learning neural network. Plos One 2020;15:e0235783. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235783.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
97. Yip, SS, Parmar, C, Kim, J, Huynh, E, Mak, RH, Aerts, HJ. Impact of experimental design on PET radiomics in predicting somatic mutation status. Eur J Radiol 2017;97:8–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrad.2017.10.009.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
98. Sutton, EJ, Huang, EP, Drukker, K, Burnside, ES, Li, H, Net, JM, et al.. Breast MRI radiomics: comparison of computer-and human-extracted imaging phenotypes. Eur Radiol Exp 2017;1:1–0. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41747-017-0025-2.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
99. King, AD, Chow, KK, Yu, KH, Mo, FK, Yeung, DK, Yuan, J, et al.. Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: diagnostic performance of diffusion-weighted MR imaging for the prediction of treatment response. Radiology 2013;266:531–8. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.12120167.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
100. Fusco, R, Di Marzo, M, Sansone, C, Sansone, M, Petrillo, A. Breast DCE-MRI: lesion classification using dynamic and morphological features by means of a multiple classifier system. Eur Radiol Exp 2017;1:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41747-017-0007-4.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
101. Alhajeri, M, Shah, SG. Limitations in and solutions for improving the functionality of picture archiving and communication system: an exploratory study of PACS professionals’ perspectives. J Digit Imag 2019;32:54–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10278-018-0127-2.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
102. Mahajan, A, Vaidya, T, Gupta, A, Rane, S, Gupta, S. Artificial intelligence in healthcare in developing nations: the beginning of a transformative journey. Cancer Res Treat 2019;2:182. https://doi.org/10.4103/crst.crst_50_19.Search in Google Scholar
103. El Saghir, NS, Anderson, BO, Gralow, J, Lopes, G, Shulman, LN, Moukadem, HA, et al.. Impact of merit-based immigration policies on brain drain from low-and middle-income countries. JCO Glob Oncol 2020;6:185–9. https://doi.org/10.1200/jgo.19.00266.Search in Google Scholar
104. Mittelstadt, BD, Floridi, L. The ethics of big data: current and foreseeable issues in biomedical contexts. Sci Eng Ethics 2016;22:303–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-015-9652-2.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
105. Geis, JR, Brady, AP, Wu, CC, Spencer, J, Ranschaert, E, Jaremko, JL, et al.. Ethics of artificial intelligence in radiology: summary of the joint European and North American multisociety statement. Can Assoc Radiol J 2019;70:329–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carj.2019.08.010.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
106. Drew, BJ, Harris, P, Zegre-Hemsey, JK, Mammone, T, Schindler, D, Salas-Boni, R, et al.. Insights into the problem of alarm fatigue with physiologic monitor devices: a comprehensive observational study of consecutive intensive care unit patients. PLoS One 2014;9:e110274. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0110274.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
107. Rajkomar, A, Hardt, M, Howell, MD, Corrado, G, Chin, HM. Ensuring fairness in machine learning to advance health equity. Ann Intern Med 2018;169:866–72. https://doi.org/10.7326/m18-1990.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
108. Char, DS, Shah, NH, Magnus, D. Implementing machine learning in health care - addressing ethical challenges. N Engl J Med 2018;378:981–3. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmp1714229.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
109. Dawson, NV, Arkes, HR. Systematic errors in medical decision making: judgment limitations. J Gen Intern Med 1987;2:183–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02596149.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
110. Belard, A, Buchman, T, Forsberg, J, Potter, KB, Dente, JC, Kirk, A, et al.. Precision diagnosis: a view of the clinical decision support systems (CDSS) landscape through the lens of critical care. J Clin Monit Comput 2017;31:261–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10877-016-9849-1.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
111. Abdullah, R, Fakieh, B. Health care employees’ perceptions of the use of artificial intelligence applications: survey study. J Med Internet Res 2020;22:e17620. https://doi.org/10.2196/17620.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
112. Bughin, J, McCarthy, B, Chui, M. A survey of 3,000 executives reveals how businesses succeed with AI. Harv Bus Rev 2017. https://hbr.org/2017/08/a-survey-of-3000-executives-reveals-how-businesses-succeed-with-ai.Search in Google Scholar
113. Topol, EJ. High-performance medicine: the convergence of human and artificial intelligence. Nat Med 2019;25:44–56. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-018-0300-7.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
114. French, J, Chen, L. Preparing for artificial intelligence: systems-level implications for the medical imaging and radiation therapy professions. J Med Imag Radiat Sci 2019;50:S20–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmir.2019.09.002.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
115. Waljee, AK, Weinheimer-Haus, EM, Abubakar, A, Ngugi, AK, Siwo, GH, Kwakye, G, et al.. Artificial intelligence and machine learning for early detection and diagnosis of colorectal cancer in sub-Saharan Africa. Gut 2022;71:1259–65. https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2022-327211.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
116. Botwe, BO, Akudjedu, TN, Antwi, WK, Rockson, P, Mkoloma, SS, Balogun, EO, et al.. The integration of artificial intelligence in medical imaging practice: perspectives of African radiographers. Radiography 2021;27:861–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2021.01.008.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
117. Abuzaid, MM, Elshami, W, McConnell, J, Tekin, HO. An extensive survey of radiographers from the Middle East and India on artificial intelligence integration in radiology practice. Health Technol 2021;11:1045–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12553-021-00583-1.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
118. Hosny, A, Parmar, C, Quackenbush, J, Schwartz, LH, Aerts, HJ. Artificial intelligence in radiology. Nat Rev Cancer 2018;18:500–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41568-018-0016-5.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
119. The Cancer Workforce Plan. Phase 1: Delivering the cancer strategy to 2021; 2017. Available from: https://www.hee.nhs.uk/sites/default/files/documents/Cancer%20Workforce%20Plan%20phase%201%20-%20Delivering%20the%20cancer%20strategy%20to%202021.pdf [Accessed 29 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
120. Jha, S, Topol, EJ. Adapting to artificial intelligence: radiologists and pathologists as information specialists. J Am Med Assoc 2016;316:2353–4. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.17438.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
121. Nie, D, Cao, X, Gao, Y, Wang, L, Shen, D. Estimating CT image from MRI data using 3D fully convolutional networks. In: Deep learning and data labeling for medical applications. Cham: Springer; 2016:170–8 pp.10.1007/978-3-319-46976-8_18Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
122. Chaibi, H, Nourine, R. New pseudo-CT generation approach from magnetic resonance imaging using a local texture descriptor. J Biomed Phys Eng 2018;8:53.Search in Google Scholar
123. Teeuwisse, W, Geleijns, J, Veldkamp, W. An inter-hospital comparison of patient dose based on clinical indications. Eur Radiol 2007;17:1795–805. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-006-0473-1.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
124. Foley, SJ, McEntee, MF, Rainford, LA. Establishment of CT diagnostic reference levels in Ireland. Br J Radiol Suppl 2012;85:1390–7. https://doi.org/10.1259/bjr/15839549.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
125. McFadden, SL, Hughes, CM, Winder, RJ. Variation in radiographic protocols in paediatric interventional cardiology. J Radiol Prot 2013;33:313. https://doi.org/10.1088/0952-4746/33/2/313.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
126. Sammy, IA, Chatha, H, Bouamra, O, Fragoso-Iñiguez, M, Lecky, F, Edwards, A. The use of whole-body computed tomography in major trauma: variations in practice in UK trauma hospitals. Emerg Med J 2017;34:647–52. https://doi.org/10.1136/emermed-2016-206167.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
127. Liu, J, Zarshenas, A, Qadir, A, Wei, Z, Yang, L, Fajardo, L, et al.. Radiation dose reduction in digital breast tomosynthesis (DBT) by means of deep-learning-based supervised image processing. In: Medical imag 2018: image process international society for optics and photonics; 2018, vol 10574:105740F p.10.1117/12.2293125Search in Google Scholar
128. Humphries, T, Si, D, Coulter, S, Simms, M, Xing, R. Comparison of deep learning approaches to low dose CT using low intensity and sparse view data. In: Medical imaging 2019: physics of medical imaging. SPIE; 2019, vol 10948:1048–54 pp.10.1117/12.2512597Search in Google Scholar
129. Ahn, C, Heo, C, Kim, JH. Combined low-dose simulation and deep learning for CT denoising: application in ultra-low-dose chest CT. In: International forum on medical imaging in Asia 2019. SPIE; 2019, vol 11050:52–6 pp.10.1117/12.2521539Search in Google Scholar
130. Wang, S, Su, Z, Ying, L, Peng, X, Zhu, S, Liang, F, et al.. Accelerating magnetic resonance imaging via deep learning. In: IEEE 13th international symposium on biomedical imaging (ISBI). IEEE; 2016:514–7 pp.10.1109/ISBI.2016.7493320Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
131. Wu, L, Cheng, JZ, Li, S, Lei, B, Wang, T, Ni, D. FUIQA: fetal ultrasound image quality assessment with deep convolutional networks. IEEE Trans Cybern 2017;47:1336–49. https://doi.org/10.1109/tcyb.2017.2671898.Search in Google Scholar
132. Looney, P, Stevenson, GN, Nicolaides, KH, Plasencia, W, Molloholli, M, Natsis, S, et al.. Fully automated, real-time 3D ultrasound segmentation to estimate first trimester placental volume using deep learning. JCI Insight 2018;3:e120178. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.120178.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
133. Kuo, CC, Chang, CM, Liu, KT, Lin, WK, Chiang, HY, Chung, CW, et al.. Automation of the kidney function prediction and classification through ultrasound-based kidney imaging using deep learning. NPJ Digital Medicine 2019;2:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-019-0104-2.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
134. Liu, F, Jang, H, Kijowski, R, Bradshaw, T, McMillan, AB. Deep learning MR imaging-based attenuation correction for PET/MR imaging. Radiology 2018;286:676–84. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2017170700.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
135. Esses, SJ, Lu, X, Zhao, T, Shanbhogue, K, Dane, B, Bruno, M, et al.. Automated image quality evaluation of T2-weighted liver MRI utilizing deep learning architecture. J Magn Reson Imag 2018;47:723–8. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmri.25779.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
136. Department of Health. The ionising radiation (medical exposure) regulations; 2017. Available from: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2017/1322/contents/made [Accessed 30 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
137. Kim, DH, Wit, H, Thurston, M. Artificial intelligence in the diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease from ioflupane-123 single photon emission computed tomography dopamine transporter scans using transfer learning. Nucl Med Commun 2018;39:887–93. https://doi.org/10.1097/mnm.0000000000000890.Search in Google Scholar
138. Choi, H, Ha, S, Im, HJ, Paek, SH, Lee, DS. Refining diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease with deep learning-based interpretation of dopamine transporter imaging. Neuroimage: Clinica 2017;16:586–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2017.09.010.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
139. Owoyemi, A, Owoyemi, J, Osiyemi, A, Boyd, A. Artificial intelligence for healthcare in Africa. Frontiers in Digital Health 2020;2:6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fdgth.2020.00006.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
140. Council of European Union.Regulation (EU) 2017/745 of the European parliament and of the council of 5 April 2017 on medical devices. Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32017R0745 [Accessed 30 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
141. Lakhani, P, Prater, AB, Hutson, RK, Andriole, KP, Dreyer, KJ, Morey, J, et al.. Machine learning in radiology: applications beyond image interpretation. J Am Coll Radiol 2018;15:350–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacr.2017.09.044.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
142. Holst, C, Sukums, F, Radovanovic, D, Ngowi, B, Noll, J, Winkler, AS. Sub-Saharan Africa—the new breeding ground for global digital health. The Lancet Digital Health 2020;2:e160–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2589-7500(20)30027-3.Search in Google Scholar
143. United Nations. Resource guide on artificial intelligence (AI) strategies; June 2021. Available from: https://sdgs.un.org/sites/default/files/2021-06/Resource%20Guide%20on%20AI%20Strategies_June%202021.pdf [Accessed 30 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
144. NIH awards nearly $75M to catalyze data science research in Africa; 2021. Available from: https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-awards-nearly-75m-catalyze-data-science-research-africa [Accessed 30 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar
145. Parker, RK, Mwachiro, MM, Ranketi, SS, Mogambi, FC, Topazian, HM, White, RE. Curative surgery improves survival for colorectal cancer in rural Kenya. World J Surg 2020;44:30–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00268-019-05234-1.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
146. Sheikhtaheri, A, Sadoughi, F, Hashemi Dehaghi, Z. Developing and using expert systems and neural networks in medicine: a review on benefits and challenges. J Med Syst 2014;38:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10916-014-0110-5.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
147. Committee on Data (CODATA). Data sharing principles in developing countries: the Nairobi data sharing principles. Paris, France: International Science Council; 2014.Search in Google Scholar
148. World Health Organization. Electronic health records: manual for developing countries. Manila, the Philippines: WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific; 2006.Search in Google Scholar
149. Adair-Rohani, H, Zukor, K, Bonjour, S, Wilburn, S, Kuesel, AC, Hebert, R, et al.. Limited electricity access in health facilities of sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review of data on electricity access, sources, and reliability. Glob Health: Science and Practice 2013;1:249–61. https://doi.org/10.9745/ghsp-d-13-00037.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
150. Odekunle, FF, Odekunle, RO, Shankar, S. Why sub-Saharan Africa lags in electronic health record adoption and possible strategies to increase its adoption in this region. Int J Health Sci 2017;11:59–64.Search in Google Scholar
151. Frey, CB, Osborne, MA. The future of employment: how susceptible are jobs to computerisation? Technol Forecast Soc Change 2017;114:254–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2016.08.019.Search in Google Scholar
152. World Bank Group. World development report 2016: digital dividends. Washington, D.C., US: World Bank Publications; 2016.Search in Google Scholar
153. Lee, KF. AI superpowers: China, Silicon Valley, and the new world order. Boston, MA, US: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 2018.Search in Google Scholar
154. Autor, DH, Levy, F, Murnane, RJ. The skill content of recent technological change: An empirical exploration. Q J Econ 2003;118:1279–333. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355303322552801.Search in Google Scholar
155. Naicker, S, Eastwood, JB, Plange-Rhule, J, Tutt, RC. Shortage of healthcare workers in sub-Saharan Africa: a nephrological perspective. Clin Nephrol 2010;74:S129–33. https://doi.org/10.5414/cnp74s129.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
156. Duvivier, RJ, Burch, VC, Boulet, JR. A comparison of physician emigration from Africa to the United States of America between 2005 and 2015. Hum Resour Health 2017;15:1–2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-017-0217-0.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
157. Ogbole, GI, Adeyomoye, AO, Badu-Peprah, A, Mensah, Y, Nzeh, DA. Survey of magnetic resonance imaging availability in West Africa. The Pan African Medical Journal 2018;30:240. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2018.30.240.14000.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
© 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston