Abstract
The post-truth era and the increasing ease with which fake news is disseminated and consumed is a wicked problem that invites re-examination of the media environment, algorithmic authority, library and information science (LIS) professional practice, and what people bring to information interactions in terms of cognitive biases and worldviews. Fake news has social consequences such as undermining civic discourse and democracy, and inciting hatred. Consequently, the role of libraries as public, social institutions embedded in democratic societies and the relational aspects of information needs are important to consider. An alternative framework, the decent society, a society in which its attendant social institutions do not humiliate, is explored. An example from the Toronto Public Library (TPL) is used to illustrate the ways in which a social institution can uphold the principle of non-humiliation in an increasingly politicized world.
References
Aiken, M. (2016). The cyber-effect: A pioneering cyberpsychologist explains how human behavior changes online. New York, NY: Spiegel & Grau.Search in Google Scholar
Albright, J. (2016, December 10). Left + right: The combined post-#election2016 news “ecosystem.” Retrieved from Medium website: https://medium.com/@d1gi/left-right-the-combined-post-election2016-news-ecosystem-42fc358fbc96Search in Google Scholar
American Library Association. (2007, May 29). Intellectual freedom and censorship FAQ [Web page]. Retrieved from American Library Association website: http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/censorship/faq American Library Association. (2019, January 29). Library Bill of Rights [Web page]. Retrieved from American Library Association website: http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybillSearch in Google Scholar
Anderson, J., & Raine, L. (2017, October 19). The future of truth and misinformation online [Web page]. Retrieved from PEW Research Centre website: http://www.pewinternet.org/2017/10/19/the-future-of-truth-and-misinformation-online/Search in Google Scholar
Andrejevic, M. (2013). Infoglut: How too much information is changing the way we think and know. New York, NY: Routledge.10.4324/9780203075319Search in Google Scholar
Bawden, D., & Robinson, L. (2009). The dark side of information: Overload, anxiety and other paradoxes and pathologies. Journal of Information Science, 35(2), 180–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/016555150809578110.1177/0165551508095781Search in Google Scholar
Bruffee, K. A. (1986). Social construction, language, and authority of knowledge: A bibliographic essay. College English, 48(8), 773–790. https://doi.org/10.2307/37672310.2307/376723Search in Google Scholar
Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(1), 116–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.11610.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116Search in Google Scholar
Campbell, C. (2011). Scapegoat: A history of blaming other people. London, UK: Duckworth Overlook.Search in Google Scholar
Case, D., & Given, L. (2016). Looking for information (4th ed.) Bingley, UK: Emerald.Search in Google Scholar
Chatman, E. (1991). Life in a small world: Applicability of gratification theory to information-seeking behavior. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 42(6), 438–449. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199107)42:6<438::AID-ASI6>3.0.CO;2-B10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199107)42:6<438::AID-ASI6>3.0.CO;2-BSearch in Google Scholar
Chatman, E. (1999). A theory of life in the round. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50(3), 207–217. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(1999)50:3<207::AID-ASI3>3.0.CO;2-810.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(1999)50:3<207::AID-ASI3>3.0.CO;2-8Search in Google Scholar
Colbert, S. (2005, October 17). Truthiness [Video file]. In J. Stewart, T. Purcell, and S. Colbert (Executive Producers), The Colbert Report. Los Angeles, CA: Comedy Central. Retrieved from Comedy Central website: http://www.comedycentral.com.au/throwbacks/videos/the-colbert-report-the-very-first-episode-clips#first-showSearch in Google Scholar
Cole, C. (2011). A theory of information need for information retrieval that connects information to knowledge. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 62(7), 1216–1231. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.2154110.1002/asi.21541Search in Google Scholar
Cole, C. (2012). Information need: A theory connecting information search to knowledge formation. Medford, NJ: Information Today.Search in Google Scholar
Cooke, N. A. (2018). Fake news and alternative facts: Information literacy in a post-truth era. Chicago, IL: ALA Editions.Search in Google Scholar
Day, R. E. (2014). Indexing it all. Boston, MA: MIT Press.10.7551/mitpress/10073.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Day, R. E. (2017). Before information literacy [Or, Who Am I, as a subject-of-(information)-need?]. Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 54(1), 57-60. https://doi.org/10.1002/pra2.2017.1450540100710.1002/pra2.2017.14505401007Search in Google Scholar
Doctorow, C. (2019). Fans of Brazil’s new fascist president chant “Facebook! Facebook! WhatsApp! WhatsApp!” at inauguration. Retrieved from BoingBoing website: https://boingboing.net/2019/01/03/world-more-connected.htmlSearch in Google Scholar
Erdelez, S. (1999). Information encountering: It’s more than just bumping into information. Bulletin for the American Society for Information Science, 25(1), 25–29. https://doi.org/10.1002/bult.11810.1002/bult.118Search in Google Scholar
Fallis, D. (2015). What is disinformation? Library Trends, 63(3), 401–426. https://doi.org/10.1353/lib.2015.001410.1353/lib.2015.0014Search in Google Scholar
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.10.1515/9781503620766Search in Google Scholar
Fidel, R. (2012). Human information interaction: An ecological approach to information behavior. Boston, MA: MIT Press.10.7551/mitpress/9780262017008.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Fisher, M., Goddu, M. K., & Keil, F. C. (2015). Searching for explanations: How the Internet inflates estimates of internal knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(3), 674–687. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge000007010.1037/xge0000070Search in Google Scholar
Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.Search in Google Scholar
Froelich, T. (2017, December). A not-so-brief account of current information ethics: The ethics of ignorance, missing information, misinformation, disinformation and other forms of deception or incompetence. BiD: textos universitaris de biblioteconomia i documentació, 39. Retrieved from http://bid.ub.edu/en/resum/397/esSearch in Google Scholar
Fuller, S. (2018). Post-truth: Knowledge as a power game. London, UK: Anthem Press.10.2307/j.ctvgd30vSearch in Google Scholar
Gigerenzer, G. (2003). Calculated risks: How to know when numbers deceive you. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.Search in Google Scholar
Holiday, R. (2013). Trust me, I’m lying: Confessions of a media manipulator. New York, NY: Penguin Books.Search in Google Scholar
Holman, A. E., Garfan, D. R., & Silver, R. (2014). Media’s role in broadcasting acute stress following the Boston Marathon bombings. PNAS, 111(1), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.131626511010.1073/pnas.1316265110Search in Google Scholar
House of Commons. (2018, July 29). Disinformation and ‘fake news’: Interim Report; Fifth Report of Session 2017–19 [PDF file]. Digital, Culture, Media, and Sport Committee. Retrieved from UK Parliament website: https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmcumeds/363/363.pdfSearch in Google Scholar
Ignatieff, M. (1986). The needs of strangers. New York, NY: Penguin Books.Search in Google Scholar
Juric, M. (2017). The role of the need for cognition in the university students’ reading behaviour (in Proceedings of ISIC, the Information Behaviour Conference, Zadar, Croatia, 20–23 September, 2016: Part 2). Information Research, 22(1), paper isic1620. Retrieved from http://www.informationr.net/ir/22-1/isic/isic1620.htmlSearch in Google Scholar
Keyes, R. 2004. Post-truth era: Dishonesty and deception in contemporary life. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.Search in Google Scholar
Keyes, R. (2016). The post-truth era. Retrieved from https://ralphkeyes.com/book/the-post-truth-era/Search in Google Scholar
Kolko, J. (2012). Wicked problems: Problems worth solving. Austin, TX: AC4D.Search in Google Scholar
Kruger, J., & Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one’s own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1121–1134.10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1121Search in Google Scholar
Lenker, M. (2016). Motivated reasoning, political information, and information literacy. Portal, 16(3), 511–528. https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2016.003010.1353/pla.2016.0030Search in Google Scholar
Mahmood, K. (2016). Do people overestimate their information literacy skills? A systematic review of empirical evidence on the Dunning-Kruger effect. Communications in Information Literacy, 10(2), 199–213. https://doi.org/10.7548/cil.v10i2.38510.7548/cil.v10i2.385Search in Google Scholar
Margalit, A. (1996). The decent society. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.Search in Google Scholar
McFarlane, L. (2018). The fallacy of post-truth. In C. G. Prado (Ed.), America’s post-truth phenomenon: When feelings and opinions trump facts and evidence (pp.189–199). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.Search in Google Scholar
McNerney, S. (2011). Psychology’s treacherous trio: Confirmation bias, cognitive dissonance, and motivated reasoning [Web page]. Retrieved from Why We Reason website: https://whywereason.wordpress.com/2011/09/07/psychologys-treacherous-trio-confirmation-bias-cognitive-dissonance-and-motivated-reasoning/Search in Google Scholar
Mehra, B., Rioux, K. S., & Albright, K. S. (2010). Social justice in library and information science. In M. Bates & M. Maack (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences (3rd ed., pp. 4820–4836). Los Angeles, CA: Taylor & Francis.Search in Google Scholar
Mokhtari, H., Davarpanah, M., Dayyani, M., & Ahanchian, M. (2013). Students’ need for cognition affects their information seeking behavior. New Library World, 114(11/12), 542–549. https://doi.org/10.1108/NLW-07-2013-006010.1108/NLW-07-2013-0060Search in Google Scholar
Nemer, D. (2018, October 25). The three types of WhatsApp users getting Brazil’s Jair Bolsonaro elected. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/25/brazil-president-jair-bolsonaro-whatsapp-fake-newsSearch in Google Scholar
Noble, S. (2018). Algorithms of oppression: How search engines reinforce racism. New York, NY: NYU Press.10.2307/j.ctt1pwt9w5Search in Google Scholar
Petty, R. E., Briñol, P., Loersch, C., & McCaslin, M. J. (2009). The need for cognition. In M. R. Leary & R. H. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of individual differences in social behavior (pp. 318–329). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Search in Google Scholar
Post-truth. (2019). In Oxford English dictionary. Retrieved from Oxford University Press website: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/post-truthSearch in Google Scholar
Ramussen, D., & McKenzie, P. (2011). Putting the pieces together: Endometriosis blogs, cognitive authority, and collaborative information behavior. Journal of the Medical Library Association, 99(2), 127–134. https://doi.org/10.3163%2F1536-5050.99.2.00410.3163/1536-5050.99.2.004Search in Google Scholar
Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.10.4159/9780674042605Search in Google Scholar
Rieh, S. Y. (2010). Credibility and cognitive authority of information. In M. Bates & M. Maack (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences (3rd ed., pp. 1337–1344). Los Angeles, CA: Taylor & Francis.Search in Google Scholar
Rittel, H., & Webber, M. M. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences, 4(2), 155–169.10.1007/BF01405730Search in Google Scholar
Savolainen, R. (2012). Conceptualizing information need in context. Information Research, 17(4), paper 534. Retrieved from http://www.informationr.net/ir/17-4/paper534.html#.XGCupFxKjIUSearch in Google Scholar
Selley, C. (2017, December 15). Toronto’s public libraries make an imperfect but brave stand for free speech. National Post. Retrieved from https://nationalpost.com/opinion/chris-selley-torontos-public-libraries-make-an-imperfect-but-brave-stand-for-free-speechSearch in Google Scholar
Sundin, O., Haider, J., Andersson, C., Carlsson, H., & Kjellberg, S. (2017). The searchification of everyday life and the mundane-ification of search, Journal of Documentation, 73(2), 224–243. https://doi.org/10.1108/JD-06-2016-008110.1108/JD-06-2016-0081Search in Google Scholar
Swanson, T. (2006). Information literacy, personal epistemology, and knowledge construction: Potential and possibilities. College & Undergraduate Libraries, 13(3), 93–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J106v13n03_0710.1300/J106v13n03_07Search in Google Scholar
Thomas, N. (2012). Algorthimic subjectivity and the need to be in-formed. In G. Latzko-Toth & F. Millerand (Eds.), TEM 2012: Proceedings of the Technology & Emerging Media Track—Annual Conference of the Canadian Communication Association (Waterloo, May 30-June 1, 2012) [PDF file]. Retrieved from the Canadian Communication Association website: https://acc-cca.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/THOMAS-TEM2012.pdfSearch in Google Scholar
Toronto Public Library. (2017). Community and event space rental policy—revisions [PDF file]. Retrieved from Toronto Public Library website: https://www.torontopubliclibrary.ca/content/about-the-library/pdfs/board/meetings/2017/dec11/04-community-and-event-space-rental-policy-revisions-combined.pdfSearch in Google Scholar
Verplanken, B., Hazenberg, P. T., & Palenewen, G. R. (1992). Need for cognition and external information search effort. Journal of Research in Personality, 26(2), 128–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(92)90049-A10.1016/0092-6566(92)90049-Search in Google Scholar
Wathen, C. N., & Burkell, J. (2002). Believe it or not: Factors influencing credibility on the Web. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(2), 134–144. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.1001610.1002/asi.10016Search in Google Scholar
Wilson, P. (1983). Second-hand knowledge: An inquiry into cognitive authority. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Search in Google Scholar
Wilson, T. D. (2000). Human information behavior. Informing Science, 3(2): 49–55. https://doi.org/10.28945/57610.28945/576Search in Google Scholar
Yorio, K., & Peet, L. (2018, July 10). Free speech debate erupts with ALA’s inclusion of hate groups in revision of Bill of Rights interpretation [Web page]. Retrieved from School Library Journal website: https://www.slj.com/?detailStory=free-speech-debate-erupts-alas-inclusion-hate-groups-bill-rights-revisionSearch in Google Scholar
© 2019 Tami Oliphant, published by De Gruyter
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Public License.