Abstract
At the turn of the twentieth century, the Philippine archipelago transitioned from nearly 400 years of colonial occupation under the Spanish to imperial occupation under the Americans. This analysis interrogates the dynamics through which the heterogeneous languages of the Philippine archipelago were maintained alongside state-sanctioned languages that over time came to create and sustain various forms of consciousness potentiated around the nexus of language. Using a theoretical foundation that intertwines Gramsci and Bakhtin’s understanding of the heteroglossic nature of language, the ways in which the interanimation of languages emerges as a potential site for the realization of certain forms of political consciousness is explored. This analysis interrogates the tensions emergent in forms of discourse linked to the question of language that gave rise to the contemporary linguistic situation in the Philippines today, both “from above” as well as “from below” at the fin de siècle.
References
Atkinson, Fred W. 1905. The Philippine Islands. New York: Ginn & Company.10.2307/198194Search in Google Scholar
Bailey, Benjamin. 2012. Heteroglossia. In Marilyn Martin-Jones, Adrian Blackledge & Angela Creese (eds.), The Routledge handbook of multilingualism, 511–519. New York: Routledge.10.4324/9780203154427.ch29Search in Google Scholar
Bakhtin, Mikhail M. 1981. The dialogic imagination: Four essays. Edited by Michael Holquist, translated by Caryl Emerson & Michael Holquist. Austin: University of Texas Press.Search in Google Scholar
Bernardo, Allan B. I. 2004. McKinley’s questionable bequest: Over 100 years of English in Philippine education. World Englishes 23(1). 17–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971x.2004.00332.x.Search in Google Scholar
Blommaert, Jan. 2005. Discourse: A critical introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511610295Search in Google Scholar
Brandist, Craig. 1996. Gramsci, Bakhtin and the semiotics of hegemony. New Left Review 1(216). 94–109.Search in Google Scholar
Brewer, Susan A. 2013. Selling empire: American propaganda and war in the Philippines. The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus 11(40). 1–27.Search in Google Scholar
Chadwick, Munro H. 2014 (1945). Nationality and Language. The Nationalities of Europe and the Growth of National Ideologies. New York: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Clark, Katerina & Michael Holquist. 1984. Mikhail Bakhtin. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Constantino, Pamela. 2009. Role of university-based language organizations in Philippine language policy decisions and implementation. Paper presentation at the 2nd International conference on filipino as a global language. San Diego, California.Search in Google Scholar
Crehan, Kate. 2016. Gramsci’s common sense: Inequality and its narratives. Durham: Duke University Press.10.1515/9780822373742Search in Google Scholar
Doeppers, Daniel. 1972. The development of Philippine cities before 1900. The Journal of Asian Studies 31(4). 769–793. https://doi.org/10.2307/2052101.Search in Google Scholar
Fernández, Mauro. 2013. The representation of Spanish in the Philippine Islands. In José Del Valle (ed.), A political history of Spanish: The making of a language, 364–379. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511794339.030Search in Google Scholar
Flores, Abraham R. 2011. Toward the intellectualization of Ilocano: practices and philosophies. Explorations: A Graduate Student Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 11(1). 51–62.Search in Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel. 1977. Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. New York: Pantheon Books.Search in Google Scholar
Gonzalez, Andrew. 1998. The language planning situation in the Philippines. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 5(6). 487–525. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434639808666365.Search in Google Scholar
Gonzalez, Andrew. 2003. Language planning in multilingual countries: The case of the Philippines. In Plenary talk at the conference of language development, language revitalization and multilingual development, language revitalization and multilingual education in minority communities in Asia. 6–8 November 2003. Bangkok.Search in Google Scholar
Gonzalez, Néstor Vicente Madali. 2008. Mindoro and beyond: Twenty-one stories. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.Search in Google Scholar
Gonzalez, Néstor Vicente Madali & Oscar V. Campomanes. 1997. Filipino American literature. In King-Kok Cheung (ed.), An interethnic companion to Asian American literature, 62–124. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Gramsci, Antonio. 1971. Selections from the prison notebooks. New York: International Publishers.Search in Google Scholar
Heller, Monica. 1999. Linguistic minorities and modernity. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.Search in Google Scholar
Hindess, Barry & Paul Q. Hirst. 1977. Mode of production and social formation: An auto-critique of pre-capitalist modes of production. London: Macmillan Press.10.1007/978-1-349-15749-5Search in Google Scholar
Hirschkop, Ken. 1999. Mikhail Bakhtin: An aesthetic for democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198159612.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Hoare, George & Nathan Sperber. 2016. An introduction to Antonio Gramsci: His life, thought and legacy. New York: Bloomsbury.Search in Google Scholar
Hobsbawm, Eric. 2003. The age of empire 1875-1914. London: Abacus.Search in Google Scholar
Ives, Peter. 2004. Gramsci’s politics of language: Engaging the Bakhtin circle and Frankfurt School. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.10.3138/9781442675490Search in Google Scholar
Kalaw, Teodoro M. 1936. Introduction. In Eufronio M. Alip (ed.), Philippine civilization before the Spanish conquest. Manila: University of Santo Tomas Press.Search in Google Scholar
Labiste, Ma Diosa. 2016. Folklore and insurgent journalism of Isabelo de los Reyes. Plaridel 13(1). 31–45.10.52518/2016.13.1-03mdlbstSearch in Google Scholar
Manuel, Arsenio E. 1963. A survey of Philippine folk epics. Asian Folklore Studies 22. 1–76. https://doi.org/10.2307/1177562.Search in Google Scholar
McFarland, Curtis D. 2004. The Philippine language situation. World Englishes 23(1). 59–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971x.2004.00335.x.Search in Google Scholar
Mojares, Resil B. 2006. Brains of the nation: Pedro Paterno, T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Isabelo de los Reyes and the production of modern knowledge. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Mojares, Resil B. 2013. Isabelo’s archive. Mandaluyong City: Anvil.Search in Google Scholar
Nakassis, Constantine V. 2016. Linguistic anthropology in 2015: Not the study of language. American Anthropologist 118(2). 330–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/aman.12528.Search in Google Scholar
Osborne, Dana. 2020. The promise of English: Benevolent assimilation, education and nationalism in the Philippines. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 42(7). 581–594. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2019.1711101.Search in Google Scholar
Pangilinan, Michael. 2009. Kapampangan lexical borrowing from Tagalog: Endangerment rather than enrichment. In Paper presented at the Eleventh International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Aussois, France.Search in Google Scholar
Patnaik, Arun K. 1988. Gramsci’s concept of common sense: Towards a theory of subaltern consciousness in hegemony processes. Economic and Political Weekly 23(5). PE2-PE10.Search in Google Scholar
Rafael, Vicente L. 1988. Contracting colonialism: Translation and Christian conversion in Tagalog society under early Spanish rule. Durham: Duke University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Saldanha, Denzil. 1988. Antonio Gramsci and the analysis of class consciousness: Some methodological considerations. Economic and Political Weekly 23(5). 11–18.Search in Google Scholar
Smolicz, Jerzy J. & Illuminado Nical. 1997. Exporting the European idea of a national language: Some education implications of the use of English and Indigenous languages in the Philippines. International Review of Education 43(5–6). 507–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-5202-0_9.Search in Google Scholar
White, Paul & Peter Jackson. 1995. (Re)theorising population geography. International Journal of Population Geography 1(2). 111–123. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijpg.6060010202.Search in Google Scholar
Yabes, Leopoldo Y. 1936. A brief survey of Iloko literature: From the beginnings to its present development, with a bibliography of works pertaining to the Iloko people and their language. Manila: Oriental Printing.Search in Google Scholar
Zavala, Iris M. 1992. Colonialism and culture: Hispanic modernisms and the social imaginary. Indiana: Indiana University Press.Search in Google Scholar
© 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Articles
- Reflecting on past language brokering experiences: how they affected children’s and teenagers’ emotions and relationships
- From garbage to COVID-19: theorizing ‘Multilingual Commanding Urgency’ in the linguistic landscape
- “I just sit, drink and go back to work.” Topographies of language practice at work
- Language naming in Indigenous Australia: a view from western Arnhem Land
- Language and political consciousness: explorations from the Philippines at the fin de siècle
- Adjusting to linguistic diversity in a primary school through relational agency and expertise: a mother-tongue teacher team’s perspective
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Articles
- Reflecting on past language brokering experiences: how they affected children’s and teenagers’ emotions and relationships
- From garbage to COVID-19: theorizing ‘Multilingual Commanding Urgency’ in the linguistic landscape
- “I just sit, drink and go back to work.” Topographies of language practice at work
- Language naming in Indigenous Australia: a view from western Arnhem Land
- Language and political consciousness: explorations from the Philippines at the fin de siècle
- Adjusting to linguistic diversity in a primary school through relational agency and expertise: a mother-tongue teacher team’s perspective