Abstract
Nitration of the ortho position of tyrosine results in the formation of 3-nitrotyrosine. Nitration of tyrosine residues in proteins using tetranitromethane has been used extensively to investigate the role of tyrosine residues in the function of many proteins (1). However, the existence of tyrosine-nitrated proteins in vivo was not investigated until the discovery of a potential nitrating agent. It was shown that the major protein modification following the reaction of peroxynitrite with proteins is 3-nitrotyrosine (2). Peroxynitrite is an oxidant formed by the near diffusion-limited reaction between two free radicals, nitric oxide (NO) and superoxide (3). Inflammatory cells, endothelium, and, potentially, other cells generate peroxynitrite upon stimulation of NO and superoxide production (4–6). Therefore, we and others have explored the possibility of using 3-nitrotyrosine as a marker for peroxynitrite-mediated oxidative stress. Published data has provided evidence that 3-nitrotyrosine is formed in a variety of human diseases and animal models of disease (7–17). Endogenous-tyrosine nitration is almost certainly derived via enzymatically produced NO although NO itself is not a nitrating agent (7–9). Chemically, protein-tyrosine residues can be nitrated by tetranitromethane (1), nitric acid plus sulfuric acid (18), nitrogen dioxide (19), the acidification of nitrite (20), and the reaction of nitrite with hypochlorous acid (21). However, under pathophysiological conditions, it appears that peroxynitrite is the proximal species for the formation of protein nitrotyrosine in vivo (22) and that CO2 is a catalyst for peroxynitrite-mediated nitration of tyrosine residues (22–24) (see Fig. 1).
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Nielsen, A. T. (1995) in Nitrocarbons, VCH Publishers, New York, pp 40–41.
Ischiropoulos, H., Zhu, L., Chen, J., Tsai, J.-H. M., Martin, J. C., Smith, C. D., and Beckman, J. S. (1992) Peroxynitrite-mediated tyrosine nitration catalyzed by superoxide dismutase. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 298, 431–437.
Beckman, J. S., Chen, J., Ischiropoulos, H., and Crow, J. P. (1994) Examining the oxidative chemistry of peroxynitrite. Methods Enzymol. 233, 229–240.
Ischiropoulos, H., Zhu, L., and Beckman, J. S. (1992) Peroxynitrite formation from macrophage-derived nitric oxide. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 298, 446–45.
Carreras, M. C., Pargament, G. A., Catz, S. D., Poderoso, J. J., and Boveris, A. (1994) Kinetics of nitric oxide and hydrogen peroxide production and formation of peroxynitrite during the respiratory burst of human neutrophils. FEBS Lett. 341, 65–68.
Kooy, N. W. and Royall, J. A. (1994) Agonist-induced peroxynitrite production from endothelial cells. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 310, 352–359.
Beckman, J. S., Ye, Y.-Z., Anderson, P. G., Chen, J, Accavitti, M. A., Tarpey, M. M., and White, C. R. (1994) Extensive nitration of protein tyrosine in human atherosclerosis detected by immunohistochemistry. Biol. Chem. Hoppe-Seyler 375, 81–88.
Haddad, I. Y., Pataki, G., Hu, P., Galliani, C., Beckman, J. S., and Matalon S. (1994) Quantitation of nitrotyrosine levels in lung sections of patients and animals with acute lung injury. J. Clin. Invest. 94, 2407–2413.
Kooy, N. W., Royall, J. A., Ye, Y.-Z., Kelly, D. R., and Beckman, J. S. (1995) Evidence for in vivo peroxynitrite production in human acute lung injury. Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. 151, 1250–1254.
Kaur, H. and Halliwell, B. (1994) Evidence for nitric oxide-mediated oxidative damage in chronic inflammation. Nitrotyrosine in serum and synovial fluid from rheumatoid patients. FEBS Lett. 350, 9–12.
Ischiropoulos, H., Al-Mehdi, A. B., and Fisher, A. B. (1995) Reactive species in rat lung injury: contribution of peroxynitrite. Am. J. Physiol. L185–L164.
Szabo, C., Salzman, A. L., and Ischiropoulos, H. (1995) Endotoxin triggers the expression of an inducible isoform of nitric oxide synthase and the formation of peroxynitrite in the rat aorta in vivo. FEBS Lett. 363, 235–238.
Wizemann, T. M., Gardner, C. R., Laskin, J. D., Quinones, S., Durham, K. D., Golle, N. L., Ohnishi, S. T., and Laskin, D. L. (1994) Production of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite in the lung during acute endotoxemia. J. Leuk. Biol. 56, 759–768.
Miller. M. J. S., Thompson, J. H., Zhang, X.-J., Saodowska-Krowicka, H., Kakkis, J. L., Munshi, U. K., Sandoval, M., Rossi, J. L., Eloby-Childress, S., Beckman, J. S., Ye, Y. Z., Rodi, C. P., Manning, P. T., Currie, M. G., and Clark, D. A. (1995) Role of inducible nitric oxide synthase expression and peroxynitrite formation in the guinea pig ileitis. Gastroenterology 109, 1475–1483.
Schulz, J. B., Matthews, R. T., Jenkins, B. G., Ferrante, R. J., Siwek, D., Henshaw, D. R., Cipolloni, P. B., Mecocci, P., Kowall, N. W., Rosen, B. R., and Beal, M. F. (1995) Blockade of neuronal nitric oxide synthase protects against excitotoxicity in vivo. J. Neurosci. 15, 8419–8429.
Basarga, O., Michaels, F. H., Zheng. Y. M., Borboski, L. E., Spitsin, S. V., Fu, Z. F., Tawadros, R., and Koprowski, H. (1995) Activation of the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase in the brains of patients with multiple sclerosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA 92, 12,041–12,045.
Ischiropoulos, H., Beers, M. F., Ohnishi, S. T., Fisher, D., Garner, S. E., and Thom, S. R. (1996) Nitric oxide production and perivascular tyrosine nitration in brain following carbon monoxide poisoning in the rat. J. Clin. Invest. 97, 2260–2267.
Olah, G. A., Malhotra, R., and Narang, S. C. (1989) in Nitration, Methods and Mechanisms Organic Nitro Chemistry Series, VCH Publishers, New York, pp. 10–116.
Knowles, M. E., McWeeny, D. J., Couchman, L., and Thorogood, M. (1974) Interaction of nitrite with proteins at gastric pH. Nature 247, 288–289.
Prutz, W. A., Monig, H., Butler, J., and E. J. Land. (1985) Reactions of nitrogen dioxide in aqueous model systems: Oxidation of tyrosine units in peptides and proteins. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 243, 125–134.
Eiserich, J. P., Cross, C. E., Jones, D., Halliwell, B., and Van der Vliet, A. (1996) Formation of nitrating and chlorinating species from the reaction of nitrite with hypochlorous acid. J. Biol. Chem. 271, 19,199–19,208.
Gow, A., D. Duran, Thom, S. R., and Ischiropoulos, H. (1996) Carbon dioxide catalyzed protein tyrosine nitration by peroxynitrite. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 333, 42–48.
Denicola, A. Trujillo, M., Freeman, B. A., and Radi, R. (1996) Peroxynitrite reaction with carbon dioxide/bicarbonate: Kinetics and influence on peroxynitrite-mediated oxidation reactions. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 333, 49–54.
Uppu, R. M., Squadrito, G. L., and Pryor, W. A. (1996) Acceleration of peroxynitrite oxidations by carbon dioxide. Archives Biochem. Biophys. 327, 335–343.
Harlow, E. and Lane, D. (1988) Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, pp. 553–612.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1998 Humana Press Inc.
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Gow, A.J., McClelland, M., Garner, S.E., Malcolm, S., Ischiropoulos, H. (1998). The Determination of Nitrotyrosine Residues in Proteins. In: Titheradge, M.A. (eds) Nitric Oxide Protocols. Methods in Molecular Biology™, vol 100. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-749-1:291
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-749-1:291
Publisher Name: Humana Press
Print ISBN: 978-0-89603-470-9
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-749-9
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols