ABSTRACT
Flipped classroom teaching approaches have increased in popularity in recent years. A common problem in these models is that students do not prepare properly for class. This study seeks to address this problem from the perspective of metacognitive reflection in order to equip students to be more capable of managing their own learning. A custom website was developed for use in a university-level flipped classroom. It provided students with access to their course content and also included three versions of metacognitive prompts, two of which included gamification. One version used structured gamification and the other made use of an open-ended gamification design. A between-subjects experiment was conducted across two undergraduate courses (n=58) over five weeks. The results showed no change in metacognitive awareness for the student group as a whole. However, the open-ended gamification group showed a significant difference compared to the guided gamification group. Furthermore, the structured gamification group showed a decrease in their regulation of cognition skills. This highlights the potential for bottom-up, open-ended gamification designs to be effective in educational situations where reflection is important. The article concludes with a discussion of the context-specific nature of gamification, as the potential gamification design implications based on these results.
Supplemental Material
- Lakmal Abeysekera and Phillip Dawson. 2015. Motivation and cognitive load in the flipped classroom: definition, rationale and a call for research. Higher Education Research & Development 34, 1 (2015), 1–14.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Gökçe Akçayır and Murat Akçayır. 2018. The flipped classroom: A review of its advantages and challenges. Computers & Education 126, (November 2018), 334–345. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.07.021Google ScholarCross Ref
- Yunjo An and Li Cao. 2014. Examining the effects of metacognitive scaffolding on students’ design problem solving in an online environment. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching 10, (January 2014), 552–568.Google Scholar
- Lilian Anthonysamy, Ah Choo Koo, and Hew Sh. 2020. Self-regulated learning strategies in higher education: Fostering digital literacy for sustainable lifelong learning. Education and Information Technologies 25, (July 2020). DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10201-8Google ScholarCross Ref
- Juha Arrasvuori, Marion Boberg, Jussi Holopainen, Hannu Korhonen, Andrés Lucero, and Markus Montola. 2011. Applying the PLEX framework in designing for playfulness. In Proceedings of the 2011 Conference on Designing Pleasurable Products and Interfaces, ACM, Milano, 1–8. Retrieved May 11, 2017 from https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2347531Google ScholarDigital Library
- James Banfield and Brad Wilkerson. 2014. Increasing Student Intrinsic Motivation And Self-Efficacy Through Gamification Pedagogy. Contemporary Issues in Education Research (CIER) 7, 4 (2014), 291–298.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Maria Bannert and Christoph Mengelkamp. 2013. Scaffolding hypermedia learning through metacognitive prompts. In International handbook of metacognition and learning technologies. Springer Science+Business Media, New York, 171–186.Google Scholar
- Maria Bannert and Peter Reimann. 2012. Supporting self-regulated hypermedia learning through prompts. Instructional Science 40, 1 (2012), 193–211.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Maria Bannert, Christoph Sonnenberg, Christoph Mengelkamp, and Elisabeth Pieger. 2015. Short- and long-term effects of students’ self-directed metacognitive prompts on navigation behavior and learning performance. Computers in Human Behavior 52, (November 2015), 293–306. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.05.038Google ScholarDigital Library
- Jonathan Bergmann and Aaron Sams. 2014. Flipped learning: Gateway to student engagement. International Society for Technology in Education.Google Scholar
- Patricia Bizzell. 1991. Classroom Authority and Critical Pedagogy. American Literary History 3, 4 (1991), 847–863.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Ian Bogost. 2014. Why Gamification is Bullshit. In The Gameful World: Approaches, Issues and Applications, Steffen P. Walz and Sebastian Deterding (eds.). The MIT Press, Cambridge, 65–79.Google Scholar
- Melissa Bond. 2020. Facilitating student engagement through the flipped classroom approach in K-12: A systematic review. Computers & Education (2020), 103819.Google Scholar
- Roger Caillois. 1961. Man, Play, and Games. The Free Press of Glencoe, Inc., New York.Google Scholar
- Sibel Günay Ceylaner and Fazilet Karakus. 2018. Effects of the Flipped Classroom Model on Students’ Self-Directed Learning Readiness and Attitudes towards the English Course. English Language Teaching 11, 9 (2018), 129–143.Google Scholar
- Maite Correa. 2015. Flipping the Foreign Language Classroom and Critical Pedagogies: A (New) Old Trend. Higher Education for the Future 2, 2 (July 2015), 114–125. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/2347631115584122Google ScholarCross Ref
- Martin Daumiller and Markus Dresel. 2019. Supporting Self-Regulated Learning With Digital Media Using Motivational Regulation and Metacognitive Prompts. The Journal of Experimental Education 87, 1 (January 2019), 161–176. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2018.1448744Google ScholarCross Ref
- Sarah J. DeLozier and Matthew G. Rhodes. 2017. Flipped classrooms: a review of key ideas and recommendations for practice. Educational psychology review 29, 1 (2017), 141–151.Google Scholar
- Amy L. Dent and Alison C. Koenka. 2016. The relation between self-regulated learning and academic achievement across childhood and adolescence: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review 28, (2016), 425–474.Google Scholar
- Sebastian Deterding, Dan Dixon, Rilla Khaled, and Lennart Nacke. 2011. From game design elements to gamefulness: defining gamification. In Proceedings of the 15th International Academic MindTrek Conference: Envisioning Future Media Environments, ACM, Tampere, 9–15. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1145/2181037.2181040Google ScholarDigital Library
- Blaženka Divjak, Bart Rienties, Francisco Iniesto, Petra Vondra, and Mirza Žižak. 2022. Flipped classrooms in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic: findings and future research recommendations. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education 19, 1 (February 2022), 9. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-021-00316-4Google ScholarCross Ref
- Murat Ekici. 2021. A systematic review of the use of gamification in flipped learning. Educ Inf Technol 26, 3 (May 2021), 3327–3346. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10394-yGoogle ScholarCross Ref
- Katharina Engelmann and Maria Bannert. 2021. Analyzing temporal data for understanding the learning process induced by metacognitive prompts. Learning and Instruction 72, (April 2021), 101205. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.05.002Google ScholarCross Ref
- John H. Flavell. 1979. Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American psychologist 34, 10 (1979), 906.Google Scholar
- Paulo Freire. 2014. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Bloomsbury Publishing USA, New Jersey.Google Scholar
- D. R. Garrison. 1997. Self-Directed Learning: Toward a Comprehensive Model. Adult Education Quarterly 48, 1 (November 1997), 18–33. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/074171369704800103Google ScholarCross Ref
- Cosme J. Gómez-Carrasco, José Monteagudo-Fernández, Juan R. Moreno-Vera, and Marta Sainz-Gómez. 2020. Evaluation of a gamification and flipped-classroom program used in teacher training: Perception of learning and outcome. PLoS ONE 15, 7 (July 2020), e0236083. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236083Google ScholarCross Ref
- Eduardo González-Cabañes, Trinidad García, David Álvarez-García, Estrella Fernández, and Celestino Rodríguez. 2022. Validation of the Shortened Version of the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory in Spanish University Students. Psicothema 34.3 (August 2022), 454–462. DOI:https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2022.75Google ScholarCross Ref
- Arthur Graesser, Jennifer Wiley, Susan Goldman, Tenaha O'Reilly, Moongee Jeon, and Bethany McDaniel. 2007. SEEK Web tutor: Fostering a critical stance while exploring the causes of volcanic eruption. Metacognition and Learning 2, (December 2007), 89–105. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-007-9013-xGoogle ScholarCross Ref
- Thomas Griffin D, Jennifer Wiley, and Carlos Salas R. 2013. Supporting Effective Self-Regulated Learning: The Critical Role of Monitoring. In International handbook of metacognition and learning technologies, Roger Azevedo and Vincent Aleven (eds.). Springer Science+Business Media, New York, 19–34.Google Scholar
- Juho Hamari, Jonna Koivisto, and Harri Sarsa. 2014. Does gamification work?–a literature review of empirical studies on gamification. In 2014 47th Hawaii international conference on system sciences, Ieee, 3025–3034.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Joel D. Harden. 2015. Learning Without Sages? Reflections on “Flipping” the University Classroom. Alternate routes: a journal of Critical Social Research 26, (January 2015).Google Scholar
- George M. Harrison and Lisa M. Vallin. 2018. Evaluating the metacognitive awareness inventory using empirical factor-structure evidence. Metacognition Learning 13, 1 (April 2018), 15–38. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-017-9176-zGoogle ScholarCross Ref
- L. A. Harvey. 2018. Statistical testing for baseline differences between randomised groups is not meaningful. Spinal Cord 56, 10 (October 2018), 919–919. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41393-018-0203-yGoogle ScholarCross Ref
- H. Hossein-Mohand, J.-M. Trujillo-Torres, M. Gómez-García, H. Hossein-Mohand, and A. Campos-Soto. 2021. Analysis of the use and integration of the flipped learning model, project-based learning, and gamification methodologies by secondary school mathematics teachers. Sustainability (Switzerland) 13, 5 (2021), 1–18. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052606Google ScholarCross Ref
- Chia-Lin Hsu and Mu-Chen Chen. 2018. How does gamification improve user experience? An empirical investigation on the antecedences and consequences of user experience and its mediating role. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 132, (July 2018), 118–129. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2018.01.023Google ScholarCross Ref
- Biyun Huang and Khe Foon Hew. 2018. Implementing a theory-driven gamification model in higher education flipped courses: Effects on out-of-class activity completion and quality of artifacts. Computers & Education 125, (October 2018), 254–272. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.06.018Google ScholarDigital Library
- Rui Huang, Albert D. Ritzhaupt, Max Sommer, Jiawen Zhu, Anita Stephen, Natercia Valle, John Hampton, and Jingwei Li. 2020. The impact of gamification in educational settings on student learning outcomes: a meta-analysis. Education Tech Research Dev 68, 4 (August 2020), 1875–1901. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09807-zGoogle ScholarCross Ref
- Johan Huizinga. 1949. Homo Ludens: Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, London.Google Scholar
- Robin Hunicke, Marc LeBlanc, and Robert Zubek. 2004. MDA: A formal approach to game design and game research. In Proceedings of the AAAI Workshop on Challenges in Game AI, AAAI Press, San Jose, 1–5. Retrieved December 3, 2014 from http://www.aaai.org/Papers/Workshops/2004/WS-04-04/WS04-04-001.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Kai Huotari and Juho Hamari. 2017. A definition for gamification: anchoring gamification in the service marketing literature. Electron Markets 27, 1 (February 2017), 21–31. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12525-015-0212-zGoogle ScholarCross Ref
- Kasim Karatas and Ibrahim Arpaci. 2021. The Role of Self-directed Learning, Metacognition, and 21st Century Skills Predicting the Readiness for Online Learning. CONT ED TECHNOLOGY 13, 3 (March 2021), ep300. DOI:https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/10786Google ScholarCross Ref
- Ken Kay and Valerie Greenhill. 2011. Twenty-First Century Students Need 21st Century Skills. In Bringing Schools into the 21st Century, Guofang Wan and Dianne M. Gut (eds.). Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, 41–65. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0268-4_3Google ScholarCross Ref
- Jonna Koivisto and Juho Hamari. 2019. The rise of motivational information systems: A review of gamification research. International Journal of Information Management 45, (April 2019), 191–210. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.10.013Google ScholarDigital Library
- Kevin S Krahenbuhl. 2016. Student-centered Education and Constructivism: Challenges, Concerns, and Clarity for Teachers. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas 89, 3 (2016), 97–105.Google ScholarCross Ref
- David R. Krathwohl. 2002. A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy: An Overview. Theory Into Practice 41, 4 (2002), 212–218.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Richard Landers. 2015. Developing a Theory of Gamified Learning. Simulation & Gaming (April 2015). DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878114563660Google ScholarDigital Library
- Richard N. Landers. 2019. Gamification Misunderstood: How Badly Executed and Rhetorical Gamification Obscures Its Transformative Potential. Journal of Management Inquiry 28, 2 (April 2019), 137–140. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/1056492618790913Google ScholarCross Ref
- Richard N. Landers, Elena M. Auer, Andrew B. Collmus, and Michael B. Armstrong. 2018. Gamification Science, Its History and Future: Definitions and a Research Agenda. Simulation & Gaming 49, 3 (June 2018), 315–337. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878118774385Google ScholarDigital Library
- Thomas Leclercq, Ingrid Poncin, and Wafa Hammedi. 2020. Opening the black box of gameful experience: Implications for gamification process design. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 52, (January 2020), 101882. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.07.007Google ScholarCross Ref
- Jaypee M. Limueco and Maricar S. Prudente. 2019. Flipped classroom enhances student's metacognitive awareness. In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on E-Education, E-Business, E-Management and E-Learning, ACM, Tokyo Japan, 70–74. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1145/3306500.3306507Google ScholarDigital Library
- Xiaodong Lin and James D. Lehman. 1999. Supporting learning of variable control in a computer-based biology environment: Effects of prompting college students to reflect on their own thinking. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36, 7 (1999), 837–858. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2736(199909)36:7<837::AID-TEA6>3.0.CO;2-UGoogle ScholarCross Ref
- Chung Kwan Lo. 2018. Grounding the flipped classroom approach in the foundations of educational technology. Education Tech Research Dev 66, 3 (June 2018), 793–811. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-018-9578-xGoogle ScholarCross Ref
- Jenni Majuri, Jonna Koivisto, and Juho Hamari. 2018. Gamification of education and learning: A review of empirical literature. In Proceedings of the 2nd International GamiFIN Conference, TamPub, Pori, 11–19.Google Scholar
- Ana Manzano-León, Pablo Camacho-Lazarraga, Miguel A. Guerrero, Laura Guerrero-Puerta, José M. Aguilar-Parra, Rubén Trigueros, and Antonio Alias. 2021. Between level up and game over: A systematic literature review of gamification in education. Sustainability 13, 4 (2021), 2247.Google ScholarCross Ref
- L. Morais, V. Goncalves, and L.B. De Assis. 2021. A case study on the use of gamification in the flipped classroom. In (Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies, CISTI), IEEE Computer Society. DOI:https://doi.org/10.23919/CISTI52073.2021.9476257Google ScholarCross Ref
- Fiona Fui-Hoon Nah, Qing Zeng, Venkata Rajasekhar Telaprolu, Abhishek Padmanabhuni Ayyappa, and Brenda Eschenbrenner. 2014. Gamification of education: a review of literature. In International conference on hci in business, Springer, 401–409. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-07293-7_39Google Scholar
- Kazuhiro Ohtani and Tetsuya Hisasaka. 2018. Beyond intelligence: A meta-analytic review of the relationship among metacognition, intelligence, and academic performance. Metacognition and Learning 13, (2018), 179–212.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Wilk Oliveira, Juho Hamari, Lei Shi, Armando M. Toda, Luiz Rodrigues, Paula T. Palomino, and Seiji Isotani. 2023. Tailored gamification in education: A literature review and future agenda. Educ Inf Technol 28, 1 (January 2023), 373–406. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11122-4Google ScholarDigital Library
- Marc A Ouellette. 2020. I Told You That to Tell You This: Metagaming and Metacognition in the Hybrid Classroom. 21, 4 (2020).Google Scholar
- Ernesto Pacheco, Jaime Palma, David Salinas, and Ivan Arana. 2020. Gamification and Self-Directed Learning. In ECGBL 2020 14th European Conference on Game-Based Learning, Academic Conferences limited, 417.Google Scholar
- R. K. Pandit and Valiur Rahaman. 2019. Critical Pedagogy in Digital Era: Understanding the Importance of Arts & Humanities for Sustainable IT Development. SSRN Electronic Journal (2019). DOI:https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3387020Google ScholarCross Ref
- Reinhard Pekrun, Thomas Goetz, Wolfram Titz, and Raymond P. Perry. 2002. Academic Emotions in Students’ Self-Regulated Learning and Achievement: A Program of Qualitative and Quantitative Research. Educational Psychologist 37, 2 (January 2002), 91–105. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3702_4Google ScholarCross Ref
- Elisabeth Pieger and Maria Bannert. 2018. Differential effects of students’ self-directed metacognitive prompts. Computers in Human Behavior 86, (2018), 165–173.Google Scholar
- Jane Pilling-Cormick and D. Randy Garrison. 2007. Self-directed and self-regulated learning: Conceptual links. Canadian Journal of University Continuing Education 33, 2 (2007).Google Scholar
- Sumitra Pokhrel and Roshan Chhetri. 2021. A Literature Review on Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Teaching and Learning. Higher Education for the Future 8, 1 (January 2021), 133–141. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/2347631120983481Google ScholarCross Ref
- Alan Pritchard. 2009. Ways of Learning: Learning Theories and Learning Styles in the Classroom (2nd ed.). Routledge, London.Google Scholar
- Luiz Rodrigues, Filipe D. Pereira, Armando M. Toda, Paula T. Palomino, Marcela Pessoa, Leandro Silva Galvão Carvalho, David Fernandes, Elaine H. T. Oliveira, Alexandra I. Cristea, and Seiji Isotani. 2022. Gamification suffers from the novelty effect but benefits from the familiarization effect: Findings from a longitudinal study. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education 19, 1 (February 2022), 13. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-021-00314-6Google ScholarCross Ref
- Aaron Röhl, Shweta Reddy, and Gayla Jett Shannon. 2013. The Flipped Classroom: An Opportunity to Engage Millennial Students through Active Learning. Journal of Family & Consumer Sciences 105, 2 (2013), 44–50. DOI:https://doi.org/10.14307/jfcs105.2.12Google ScholarCross Ref
- Michael Sailer and Lisa Homner. 2020. The Gamification of Learning: a Meta-analysis. Educ Psychol Rev 32, 1 (March 2020), 77–112. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09498-wGoogle ScholarCross Ref
- Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman. 2003. Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals. MIT Press.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Gregory Schraw. 1998. Promoting general metacognitive awareness. Instructional science 26, 1–2 (1998), 113–125.Google Scholar
- Gregory Schraw and Rayne Sperling Dennison. 1994. Assessing Metacognitive Awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology 19, 4 (October 1994), 460–475. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1994.1033Google ScholarCross Ref
- Gregory Schraw and David Moshman. 1995. Metacognitive theories. Educational psychology review 7, 4 (1995), 351–371.Google Scholar
- Hui-chia Judy Shih and Sheng-hui Cindy Huang. 2018. The development of EFL learners’ metacognition in a flipped classroom. (2018).Google Scholar
- Hui-chia Judy Shih and Sheng-hui Cindy Huang. 2020. College students’ metacognitive strategy use in an EFL flipped classroom. Computer Assisted Language Learning 33, 7 (September 2020), 755–784. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1590420Google ScholarCross Ref
- Miguel Sicart. 2017. Play Matters. MIT Press.Google Scholar
- Peter Strelan, Amanda Osborn, and Edward Palmer. 2020. The flipped classroom: A meta-analysis of effects on student performance across disciplines and education levels. Educational Research Review 30, (June 2020). DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100314Google ScholarCross Ref
- Lie Ming Tang and Judy Kay. 2014. Gamification: metacognitive scaffolding towards long term goals? In UMAP Workshops, Citeseer.Google Scholar
- Mattia Thibault. 2019. Punk gamification. In Proceedings of GamiFIN Conference 2019, CEUR, Levi, 58–69. Retrieved October 21, 2022 from http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2359/paper6.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Mattia Thibault and Juho Hamari. 2021. Seven Points to Reappropriate Gamification. In Transforming Society and Organizations through Gamification: From the Sustainable Development Goals to Inclusive Workplaces, Agnessa Spanellis and J. Tuomas Harviainen (eds.). Springer International Publishing, Cham, 11–28. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68207-1_2Google ScholarCross Ref
- Maryellen Weimer. 2013. Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice (2nd ed.). Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.Google Scholar
- Zamzami Zainuddin and Corinne Jacqueline Perera. 2018. Supporting students’ self-directed learning in the flipped classroom through the LMS TES BlendSpace. On the Horizon 26, 4 (January 2018), 281–290. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1108/OTH-04-2017-0016Google ScholarCross Ref
- Ping Zhang. 2008. Motivational affordances: reasons for ICT design and use. Commun. ACM 51, 11 (November 2008), 145–147. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1145/1400214.1400244Google ScholarDigital Library
Index Terms
- Gamified metacognitive prompts in a higher education flipped classroom
Recommendations
Flipped classroom enhances student's metacognitive awareness
IC4E '19: Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on E-Education, E-Business, E-Management and E-LearningThis study aimed to explore the impact of Flipped Classroom model to the students' metacognitive awareness. Quasi-experimental designed was utilized. Qualitative method of research was done to determine the impact of the Flipped Classroom model to the ...
The impact of a flipped classroom design on learning performance in higher education
The present study examines the differential impact of studying in a Flipped Classroom (FC) setting, as compared to a Blended Learning (BL), a Traditional Learning (TL), and an E-Learning (EL) setting on learning performance, self-efficacy beliefs, ...
Flipped Classroom Method in Higher Education: A Case of Kazakhstan
Innovative Technologies and LearningAbstractThis study is set to explore flipped classroom method in Kazakhstan higher education. Teachers from eleven universities participated in the survey. Observation, questioning, counting, and comparison were used as the main research methods. The ...
Comments