Navigating complexity with motivational interviewing: implications of change talk strategies for leadership educators in communities of practice

Introduction

Contemporary organizations focusing on cultivating Communities of Practice (CoP) have become increasingly common (Schule, 2021). We argue that utilizing this framework to help navigate complexity in today’s volatile environment shows great promise for creating coherent spaces that facilitate human flourishing. Lave and Wenger (1991) developed CoP as a social learning theory that represents interactive groups sharing a common passion for attaining future goals. For example, Health Care Systems Research Network (HCSRN) and Academy Health created a voluntary forum (CoP) where experts from different disciplines gathered to share information and discuss innovative approaches to address the COVID-19 pandemic (AcademyHealth, n.d.). Such types of CoPs contribute to shaping leadership practices due to their distinctive learning capacities (Schule, 2021; Wenger et al., 2002). Despite the strong contributions a CoP is shown to have, studies (Baker & Beames, 2016; Probst & Borzillo, 2008) also show oversights and limitations when interaction diminishes among members. Further, studies (McDonald et al., 2012; Tarmizi, de Vreede, & Zigurs, 2007) identified various facilitative challenges, such as a lack of members’ participation toward the timely goal attainment within the CoP. We argue that this suggests a need to explore the Change Talk (CT) strategy of the Motivational Interviewing technique (MI) to improve the usefulness of a CoP.

MI is a cognitive-behavioral method that helps individuals make positive life changes (Miller & Rollnick, 2013) by focusing on establishing relationships with individuals through integrity, acceptance, listening, and compassion. This strategic framework (Miller & Rollnick, 2013) includes a number of researched approaches to achieving coherent relational communication. One of these is MI Spirits (Collaboration, Compassion, Acceptance, and Evocation), leader’s dispositions when interacting about change (Miller & Rollnick, 2002). These MI Spirits are grounded in person-centered therapy (Rogers, 1965). For example, the attribute of unconditional positive regard (valuing individuals for who they are) is consistent with the MI Spirit of Acceptance (accepting the absolute worth of individuals) (Csillik, 2013). Similarly, MI Principles are strategies that foster leaders’ way of being to build a collaborative relationship (Miller & Rollnick, 2002). These MI Principles are grounded in key social psychology theories:

1. Self-efficacy: one’s confidence to achieve a specific outcome (Bandura, 1977a, b) — which informs MI Principles of Rolling with Resistance and Supporting Self-efficacy

2. Accurate empathy: active interest in understanding others' feelings (Rogers, 1957) — which informs MI Principle of Expressing Empathy

3. Cognitive dissonance: restoring decisional balance by enhancing consistency between beliefs and behaviors (Festinger, 1957) — which informs MI Principle of Developing Discrepancy

To help express MI Spirits and Principles, leaders use OARS Skills (Open-ended Questions, Affirmation, Reflective Listening, and Summaries), which are interpersonal communication skills (Miller & Rollnick, 2002). OARS Skills were developed from clinical approaches applied with substance abuse (Miller, 1983) and further informed by interpersonal communication theory (Gordon, 1970). While reflective listening helps to express empathy, and affirmation helps to express positive regard (Miller & Rollnick, 2013), ultimately, the technique is only as effective as the practitioner versed in using it. Leading a group ultimately requires empathy for different views and the direction of a group rather than imposing a personal agenda (Wagner et al., 2013).

These MI Spirits and Principles are used in tandem with OARS Skills to engage with individuals in helping them express their Change Talk (CT). CT is recognized as an autonomy-supportive communication practice (Miller & Rollnick, 2013; Shorey, Martino, Lamb, LaRowe, & Santa Ana, 2015). It promotes conscious listening and motivates change rather than instigating it by evoking Desire, Ability, Reasons, Need, Commitment, Actions, and Taking Steps (DARN-CAT) to achieve desired change goals (Miller & Rollnick, 2013). Recognizing and eliciting CT is a central practice of the MI technique (Miller & Rollnick, 2013). It is rooted in theories such as self-perception (identifying change attitudes by helping individuals recognize the meaning of their behaviors) (Bem, 1972) and psychological reactance (motivation to regain one’s agency (Brehm & Brehm, 1981). CT uses various change-eliciting strategies to facilitate the desired changes, such as asking Evocative Questions, Developing Discrepancy and Decisional Balance, and Exploring Value and Goals (Miller & Rollick, 2013). These are also rooted in social psychology theories. For example, Discrepancy and Decisional Balance is drawn from cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957). Recent studies (Arbuckle et al., 2020; Erichsen & Tolstrup, 2013; Wilcox, Jenkins, & Kresh, 2017) show CT is evolving as a leadership practice. CT may provide insight into both the formation and coherence of cultural group phenomena, such as a CoP.

The purpose of this paper is to explore how CT may contribute to facilitating a CoP to achieve change goals. This paper covers relevant concepts throughout three main sections. In the first section, we discuss the social and theoretical framework supporting a CoP idea followed by a second section that describes CT. In the final section, we interweave the two concepts in a model called Facilitative Change Talk Leadership (FCTL) that expresses how they complement each other to encourage a CoP member’s acquisition of change goals. Further, we provide a case study example with a hypothetical Equal Justice Group to show application and implications of the FCTL for facilitation and leadership education. Facilitative Change Talk Leadership (FCTL) contributes to the body of knowledge in leadership education by adding to strategies for goal attainment with coherent relational communication that is person-centered and contextualized with unconditional positive regard. Interrelated contemporary issues in organizations and society increasingly require a diversified spectrum of leadership approaches that blend strategic approaches with positive dispositions and change talk toward shared learning and goal attainment. FCTL is a novel proposed model for facilitating goal attainment and a tool for leadership educators and students alike.

Discussion

In this paper, we explored Change Talk (CT) and its utility in the context of a CoP. Scholars (Hackney & Cormier, 2009) often encouraged an integrative model to better meet the needs of individuals operating in complex communities such as a CoP. To fully leverage the potential of CT for a CoP, we merged CT and CoP theories into an integrated model, which we call Facilitative Change Talk Leadership (FCTL, refer to Figure 1). We posit FCTL allows diverse individuals with different expertise, values, and cultures to work together to address common challenges. It is guided by a leader who uses CT to promote positive interactions that lead them to build consensus and achieve shared goals. FCTL is not a linear or step-by-step guide but rather a conceptual framework, a context-specific collaborative practice that facilitates individuals’ togetherness, including ways of engaging, talking, and thinking to achieve desired change goals promptly.

In FCTL (Figure 1), a leader can use MI Spirits and CoP principles to create a compassionate atmosphere for members to engage in thoughtful interaction. This allows them to recognize their own culture, including shared stories, inside jokes, laughter, different perspectives, and insightful dialogue around a common goal. This understanding enables a CoP to listen and ask evocative questions for continuous dialogue of CT. Such exchange can be elicited by using CT strategies including Developing Discrepancy and Decisional Balance, which helps to recognize the inconsistency between their own ideas and common goal. This awareness creates healthy dialogue to present their deep commitment to moving toward achieving a common goal. The role of a facilitator is to offer support and encourage autonomy through listening to DARN-CAT and strategically evoking them using various methods of CT. This leads them toward shared learning and goal attainment. It is at the leader’s discretion to use these tools as they see fit. In the example below, the tools mentioned above are integrated uniquely to benefit the specific group.

Applying FCTL with an Equal Justice Group: Case Example. As Figure 1 shows, FCTL plays a vital role in shaping leadership within a CoP. These qualities are present in the hypothetical group Equal Justice, a voluntary racial justice group that gathers weekly to discuss ways to address race issues in their community and beyond. Individuals in Equal Justice read a book relating to social justice, which offers concrete ways of approaching racial issues, and prompts them to explore change actions. Collaborative reflections bring out individuals’ worldviews and perspectives, creating a CoP culture and influencing the change goals they pursue. The culture also reflects personal experiences, political and religious views, social-economic backgrounds, and members’ identities.

However, these characteristics challenge the CoP’s change interactions, shared learning, and identification. Suppose an individual in the racial justice CoP shares their political perspectives with the group which results in tension or conflict. Leaders can then utilize the tools provided in Table 1, seeking to open a dialogue between inside and outside perspectives to develop active participation from members (Wenger et al., 2002). Creating an impartial rhythm (Wenger et al., 2002) allows the leader to acknowledge members’ emotions and transition them toward expressing CT to achieve their change goals; this showcases how CoP principles operate in cultivating an environment for CT.

Because of diverse perspectives in a CoP, FCTL is required to guide the members toward mutual understanding and goal attainment. In the context of the CoP Equal Justice, a difference of opinion can be productive if the leader utilizes MI Spirits to honor members' unique perspectives while bringing them back to the priority of their shared change goal (Arbuckle et al., 2020). Here, a leader can use the MI Spirit, Mindset of Honoring (refer to Table 2) to deescalate the tension between members’ views or attitudes. When a leader offers empathetic yet encouraging statements like, “I honor your world views about race, let us talk about it more,” it allows members to feel comfortable and valued for their perspectives. Likewise, when a member of Equal Justice expresses deep emotions, such as fear or frustration toward the race issue, the facilitator can use the Mindset of Respecting: “I respect your frustrations; let us discuss.” Such change interactions allow members to become more authentic through collaborative discussion and remind them that their contributions are relevant to achieving the shared change goals of the group. When inevitable tensions arise in discussing such complex topics, productive change goals can still be promptly reached.

Simultaneously, leaders can create a compassionate atmosphere using OARS skills: Open-ended Questions, Reflective Listening, Affirmation, and Summaries (refer to Table 2). With these skills, a leader urges members to achieve change goals themselves and reaffirms the change goals they desire to meet. By engaging with OARS skills, leaders do not impose but strategically involve themselves in maintaining a progressive flow toward the change goals of the group. When an Equal Justice member expresses conflicting views, the leader can use Affirmation skills to encourage them to feel seen and heard while also giving them the room to feel safe in the group to communicate openly (Marshall & Nielsen, 2020). Affirmations like, “You seem genuine in sharing your opinion,” can help a leader locate the strength and confidence within the member to return to their shared purpose. Affirmation legitimizes an individual’s feelings and encourages a CoP member to feel welcomed. A lack of utilizing OARS skills directly impacts a CoP failure because members’ lack of association with the CoP can deter them from focusing on the shared change goal.

We believe FCTL is necessary to achieve change goals or shared purpose. The first step in facilitating dialogue among the voluntary Equal Justice group is to recognize individuals’ DARN-CAT by asking evocative questions such as “Why are you concerned about racial justice?” (“Reasons to Change”), “What resources do we have as a community?” (“Ability to Change”), “What is the urgency in addressing racial issues?” (“Need to Change”). Members’ interaction around these types of evocative questions helps the group recognize the depth of the issue but also helps them verbalize their concerns through their own stories. For example, Alex expresses that racism in his community dehumanizes his neighbors from different racial backgrounds. Joy shares that one of her friends got targeted recently and is afraid this type of act increases hate and violence in her community. The facilitator draws their thoughts, experiences, and ideas to direct them to express action statements: “How might we address racism in our community? What are some of the steps you might want to take?” (“Action and Taking Steps to Change”). Reminding members, through evocative questions, of the group’s specific goals in the context of their own perspectives and values allows members to redirect their focus to identify those change goals again. This encourages members to narrow their focus collectively and navigate toward their change goals. It is most effective to encourage the redirection of members toward their desired change goals rather than direct the CoP in a specific way. Leaders should be mindful of offering their ideas and only ask questions to help advise the group based on their needs. This builds self-efficacy for reaching change goals which increases members' likelihood of attaining them promptly.

Further, a facilitator’s role is to listen to DARN-CAT and evoke them strategically using various change-eliciting methods. This occurs by continuously facilitating individuals’ CT, leading them to present their deep commitment to achieving desired change goals, including resolving ambivalence (Marshall & Nielsen, 2020; Miller & Rollick, 2013; Wilcox et al., 2017). When a CT theme emerges, like racism, change-eliciting methods (refer to Table 2) suggested by Miller and Rollnick (2013) may be used to elicit DARN-CAT. For example, a leader can evoke individuals’ reasons for desired change by developing Discrepancy and Decisional Balance. In Equal Justice, a leader can ask: “What are the benefits of addressing race issues in our community? What are the consequences of not addressing it?” Situations arise where a member struggles with their own perspective or critiques those of others.

These are opportunities for the leader to elicit CT by Exploring Values and Goals: “What values are most important to you, and how are they related to desired change goals?” This way of eliciting CT allows a flow of conversation for members to reflect upon and acknowledge other perspectives, even if they are different or conflicting. Uniting members’ differences toward a common goal and simultaneously listening and evoking CT requires the facilitator to maintain a conducive learning atmosphere through the application of MI Principles (refer to Table 2) since they cultivate mutual understanding and social closeness to work with and work for a CoP. Similarly, when one of the Equal Justice members expresses ideas to address race issues, a facilitator or members can Express Empathy by saying, “I like how you are envisioning solutions, and we would like to hear more.” Alternatively, they can Roll with Resistance: “It sounds like you feel strongly about it. Tell us more.”

The above case example provides insights into how FCTL might operate in a CoP such as Equal Justice. In a CoP, the concrete process of Change Talk builds a collaborative environment in which the autonomy of the individuals is respected, and the individuals’ intrinsic resources for achieving a common goal are elicited. A facilitator’s journey with the group, both as a facilitator and as a member, allows a better understanding of group perspectives and experiences through the medium of MI Leadership Dispositions (refer to Table 2). These dispositions are a set of Spirits and Principles, evoked using OARS, that create a compassionate atmosphere that promotes CT using various change-eliciting methods. A facilitator may use MI Leadership Dispositions or supplement similar leadership skillsets to inspire, motivate, and support individuals’ autonomy to make a change as long as practices applied are natural, unbiased, and ethical as possible; it is a process of interweaving listening and evoking CT. The vitality of CoP depends on FCTL, where a CoP leader purposefully applies leadership skillsets, CoP principles, and communication skills to recognize and elicit members’ CT. This enables CoP members to collaboratively inquire about their passions, decisions, and goals in an interactive learning community.

Conclusion and future study

In this paper, we first introduced the concept of Communities of Practice (CoP) and highlighted the importance and challenges of facilitative leadership within a CoP. Second, we discussed Change Talk (CT) and its potential to equip facilitators with a wide range of skill sets to direct a CoP toward change goals. Third, we introduced an integrated model called Facilitative Change Talk Leadership (FCTL), which combines CT and CoP, providing a multidimensional approach to shape and sustain a CoP in today’s complex environment.

By embracing the FCTL model, leaders and facilitators can equip themselves with the necessary skills to guide CoPs toward achieving change goals. This approach can benefit leadership educators and community practitioners in various industries, addressing challenges from global crises to local community issues. The FCTL model provides a framework for practitioners to support a CoP in developing collaborative inquiry and resilience to effectively address complex challenges. By working collaboratively and in a structured manner, a CoP can leverage their members' collective intelligence and creativity to develop innovative solutions and strategies.

Future research could conduct pilot studies to investigate the effectiveness of the FCTL model in different contexts and with varied populations. Such studies could assess the FCTL model’s impact on CoPs and facilitators' implementation experiences. Additionally, future studies could investigate the FCTL model’s effectiveness in creating sustainable change in various corners of society and identify effective strategies for promoting change in diverse cultural and community settings. By conducting pilot studies and exploring the practical application of the FCTL model in different contexts, future studies can provide valuable insights into the model’s effectiveness in guiding a CoP toward addressing complex challenges and contributing to meaningful impact across society.