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1999 March 20

Volume 514, Number 1
The Astrophysical Journal, 514:1–6, 1999 March 20
© 1999. The American Astronomical Society. All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A.
DOI: 10.1086/306949

Where Are the Baryons?

Renyue Cen and

Jeremiah P. Ostriker

Princeton University Observatory, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544; cen@astro.princeton.edu, jpo@astro.princeton.edu

ABSTRACT

New high-resolution, large-scale cosmological hydrodynamic galaxy formation simulations of a standard cold dark matter model (with a cosmological constant) are utilized to predict the distribution of baryons at the present and at moderate redshift. It is found that the average temperature of baryons is an increasing function of time, with most of the baryons at the present time having a temperature in the range of 105–107 K. Thus not only is the universe dominated by dark matter, but more than one-half of the normal matter is yet to be detected. Detection of this warm/hot gas poses an observational challenge, which requires sensitive EUV and X-ray satellites. Signatures include a soft cosmic X-ray background, apparent warm components in hot clusters due to both intrinsic warm intracluster and intercluster gas projected onto clusters along the line of sight, absorption lines in X-ray and UV quasar spectra [e.g., O vi (1032, 1038) A lines, O vii 574 eV line], strong emission lines (e.g., O viii 653 eV line), and low-redshift, broad, low column density Lyα absorption lines. We estimate that approximately one-fourth of the extragalactic soft X-ray background (at 0.7 keV) arises from the warm/hot gas, half of it coming from , and three-quarters coming from , so the source regions should be identifiable on deep optical images.

Received 1998 September 11; accepted 1998 October 29

Subject headings:

cosmology: theory—galaxies: formation—large-scale structure of universe—methods: numerical

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Ravi Subrahmanyan, R. W. Hunstead, N. L. J. Cox, and V. McIntyre. (2006) SGRS J0515−8100: A Fat-Double Giant Radio Galaxy. The Astrophysical Journal 636:1, 172-180
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Scott C. Porter, Somak Raychaudhury. (2006) The Pisces-Cetus supercluster: a remarkable filament of galaxies in the 2dF Galaxy Redshift and Sloan Digital Sky surveys. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 364:4, 1387-1396
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Renyue Cen, Kentaro Nagamine, and Jeremiah P. Ostriker. (2005) Quantitative Signatures of Galactic Superwinds on Lyα Clouds and Metal-Line Systems. The Astrophysical Journal 635:1, 86-99
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H. J. Mo, Xiaohu Yang, Frank C. van den Bosch, Neal Katz. (2005) Pre-heating by pre-virialization and its impact on galaxy formation. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 363:4, 1155-1166
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Masahiro Nagashima, Hideki Yahagi, Motohiro Enoki, Yuzuru Yoshii, and Naoteru Gouda. (2005) Numerical Galaxy Catalog. I. A Semianalytic Model of Galaxy Formation with N-Body Simulations. The Astrophysical Journal 634:1, 26-50
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Taotao Fang, Claude R. Canizares, and Herman L. Marshall. (2005) High-Resolution Spectroscopy of X-Ray Quasars: Searching for the X-Ray Absorption from the Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium. The Astrophysical Journal 633:1, 61-70
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Dusan Keres, Neal Katz, David H. Weinberg, Romeel Dave. (2005) How do galaxies get their gas?. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 363:1, 2-28
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Rik J. Williams, Smita Mathur, Fabrizio Nicastro, Martin Elvis, Jeremy J. Drake, Taotao Fang, Fabrizio Fiore, Yair Krongold, Q. Daniel Wang, and Yangsen Yao. (2005) Probing the Local Group Medium toward Markarian 421 with Chandra and the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer. The Astrophysical Journal 631:2, 856-867
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C. Wolf, E. F. Bell, D. H. McIntosh, H.-W. Rix, M. Barden, S. V. W. Beckwith, A. Borch, J. A. R. Caldwell, B. Häussler, C. Heymans, K. Jahnke, S. Jogee, K. Meisenheimer, C. Y. Peng, S. F. Sánchez, R. S. Somerville, and L. Wisotzki. (2005) GEMS: Which Galaxies Dominate the z  0.7 Ultraviolet Luminosity Density?. The Astrophysical Journal 630:2, 771-783
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B. McKernan, T. Yaqoob, C. S. Reynolds. (2005) Constraints on hot metals in the vicinity of the Galaxy. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 361:4, 1337-1344
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Fabrizio Nicastro, Smita Mathur, Martin Elvis, Jeremy Drake, Fabrizio Fiore, Taotao Fang, Antonella Fruscione, Yair Krongold, Herman Marshall, and Rik Williams. (2005) Chandra Detection of the First X-Ray Forest along the Line of Sight to Markarian 421. The Astrophysical Journal 629:2, 700-718
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Niayesh Afshordi, Yen-Ting Lin, and Alastair J. R. Sanderson. (2005) Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe Constraints on the Intracluster Medium. The Astrophysical Journal 629:1, 1-14
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Massimiliano Bonamente, Richard Lieu, Jonathan P. D. Mittaz, Jelle S. Kaastra, and Jukka Nevalainen. (2005) Thermal and Nonthermal Nature of the Soft Excess Emission from Sérsic 159-03 Observed with XMM-Newton. The Astrophysical Journal 629:1, 192-203
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Kentaro Nagamine, Renyue Cen, Lars Hernquist, Jeremiah P. Ostriker, and Volker Springel. (2005) Massive Galaxies and Extremely Red Objects at z = 1–3 in Cosmological Hydrodynamic Simulations: Near-Infrared Properties. The Astrophysical Journal 627:2, 608-620
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X. Barcons, F. B. S. Paerels, F. J. Carrera, M. T. Ceballos, M. Sako. (2005) Tentative detection of warm intervening gas towards PKS 0548-322 with XMM-Newton. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 359:4, 1549-1556
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Reinhard Schlickeiser. (2005) On the origin of cosmological magnetic fields by plasma instabilities. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 47:5A, A205-A218
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A. M. Swinbank, Ian Smail, R. G. Bower, C. Borys, S. C. Chapman, A. W. Blain, R. J. Ivison, S. Ramsay Howat, W. C. Keel, A. J. Bunker. (2005) Optical and near-infrared integral field spectroscopy of the SCUBA galaxy N2 850.4. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 359:2, 401-407
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S. R. Furlanetto, L. A. Phillips, M. Kamionkowski. (2005) Highly-ionized oxygen absorbers in the intergalactic medium. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 359:1, 295-307
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Ping He, Long-Long Feng, and Li-Zhi Fang. (2005) Distributions of the Baryon Fraction on Large Scales in the Universe. The Astrophysical Journal 623:2, 601-611
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Taotao Fang, Rupert A. C. Croft, Wilton T. Sanders, John Houck, Romeel Davé, Neal Katz, David H. Weinberg, and Lars Hernquist. (2005) Simulation of Soft X-Ray Emission Lines from the Missing Baryons. The Astrophysical Journal 623:2, 612-626
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Edward B. Jenkins, David V. Bowen, Todd M. Tripp, and Kenneth R. Sembach. (2005) A Near-Solar Metallicity, Nitrogen-deficient Lyman Limit Absorber Associated with Two S0 Galaxies. The Astrophysical Journal 623:2, 767-794
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Joseph A. Collins, J. Michael Shull, and Mark L. Giroux. (2005) Highly Ionized High-Velocity Clouds: Hot Intergalactic Medium or Galactic Halo?. The Astrophysical Journal 623:1, 196-212
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L. Zappacosta, R. Maiolino, F. Mannucci, R. Gilli, P. Schuecker. (2005) Warm-hot intergalactic medium in the Sculptor supercluster. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 357:3, 929-936
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Kevin A. Pimbblet. (2005) A new algorithm for the detection of intercluster galaxy filaments using galaxy orientation alignments. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 358:1, 256-262
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Steven R. Furlanetto, Joop Schaye, Volker Springel, and Lars Hernquist. (2005) Lyα Emission from Structure Formation. The Astrophysical Journal 622:1, 7-27
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Fabrizio Nicastro, Smita Mathur, Martin Elvis, Jeremy Drake, Taotao Fang, Antonella Fruscione, Yair Krongold, Herman Marshall, Rik Williams, Andreas Zezas. (2005) The mass of the missing baryons in the X-ray forest of the warm–hot intergalactic medium. Nature 433:7025, 495-498
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Kevin A. Pimbblet, Alastair C. Edge, Warrick J. Couch. (2005) Discovery of a large-scale wall in the direction of Abell 22. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters 357:1, L45-L49
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Hyesung Kang, Dongsu Ryu, Renyue Cen, and Doojong Song. (2005) Shock-heated Gas in the Large-Scale Structure of the Universe. The Astrophysical Journal 620:1, 21-30
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Todd M. Tripp, Edward B. Jenkins, David V. Bowen, Jason X. Prochaska, Bastien Aracil, and Rajib Ganguly. (2005) Discovery of a Primitive Damped Lyα Absorber near an X-Ray–bright Galaxy Group in the Virgo Cluster. The Astrophysical Journal 619:2, 714-732
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Michael L Norman. (2005) The history of cosmic baryons: discoveries using advanced computing. Journal of Physics: Conference Series 16, 358-369
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G. Mark Voit. (2005) Tracing cosmic evolution with clusters of galaxies. Reviews of Modern Physics 77:1, 207-258
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Kentaro Nagamine, Renyue Cen, Lars Hernquist, Jeremiah P. Ostriker, and Volker Springel. (2005) Massive Galaxies in Cosmological Simulations: Ultraviolet-selected Sample at Redshift z = 2. The Astrophysical Journal 618:1, 23-37
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J. Mittaz, R. Lieu, R. Cen, and M. Bonamente. (2004) Warm-hot Intergalactic Medium Emission and the Cluster Soft Excess: A Model Comparison. The Astrophysical Journal 617:2, 860-866
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Jason X. Prochaska, Hsiao-Wen Chen, J. Christopher Howk, Benjamin J. Weiner, and John Mulchaey. (2004) Probing the Intergalactic Medium–Galaxy Connection toward PKS 0405−123. I. Ultraviolet Spectroscopy and Metal-Line Systems. The Astrophysical Journal 617:2, 718-745
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Barry McKernan, Tahir Yaqoob, and Christopher S. Reynolds. (2004) O vii and O viii Absorption by Hot Gas in the Vicinity of the Galaxy. The Astrophysical Journal 617:1, 232-239
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Kenneth R. Sembach, Todd M. Tripp, Blair D. Savage, and Philipp Richter. (2004) Physical Properties and Baryonic Content of Low-Redshift Intergalactic Lyα and O vi Absorption Line Systems: The PG 1116+215 Sight Line. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 155:2, 351-393
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Lucio Mayer, Ben Moore. (2004) The baryonic mass-velocity relation: clues to feedback processes during structure formation and the cosmic baryon inventory. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 354:2, 477-484
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Ping He, Long-Long Feng, and Li-Zhi Fang. (2004) Temperature and Entropy Fields of Baryonic Gas in the Universe. The Astrophysical Journal 612:1, 14-27
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Q. Daniel Wang, Frazer Owen, and Michael Ledlow. (2004) X-Raying A2125: A Large-Scale Hierarchical Complex of Galaxies and Hot Gas. The Astrophysical Journal 611:2, 821-834
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Steven R. Furlanetto and Abraham Loeb. (2004) Large-Scale Structure Shocks at Low and High Redshifts. The Astrophysical Journal 611:2, 642-654
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Kentaro Nagamine, Renyue Cen, Lars Hernquist, Jeremiah P. Ostriker, and Volker Springel. (2004) Is There a Missing Galaxy Problem at High Redshift?. The Astrophysical Journal 610:1, 45-50
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H. Ebeling, E. Barrett, and D. Donovan. (2004) Discovery of a Large-Scale Filament Connected to the Massive Galaxy Cluster MACS J0717.5+3745 at z = 0.55. The Astrophysical Journal Letters 609:2, L49-L52
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Massimiliano Bonamente and W. Van Dyke Dixon. (2004) FUSE Observations of Galactic and Intrinsic Absorption in the Spectrum of the Seyfert 1 Galaxy 2MASX J21362313−6224008. The Astrophysical Journal 609:2, 597-602
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Philipp Richter, Blair D. Savage, Todd M. Tripp, and Kenneth R. Sembach. (2004) FUSE and STIS Observations of the Warm-hot Intergalactic Medium toward PG 1259+593. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 153:1, 165-204
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R. G. Bower, S. L. Morris, R. Bacon, R. J. Wilman, M. Sullivan, S. Chapman, R. L. Davies, P. T. de Zeeuw, E. Emsellem. (2004) Deep SAURON spectral imaging of the diffuse Lyman alpha halo LAB1 in SSA 22. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 351:1, 63-69
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Fiona Hoyle and Michael S. Vogeley. (2004) Voids in the Two-Degree Field Galaxy Redshift Survey. The Astrophysical Journal 607:2, 751-764
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Steven R. Furlanetto, Joop Schaye, Volker Springel, and Lars Hernquist. (2004) Ultraviolet Line Emission from Metals in the Low-Redshift Intergalactic Medium. The Astrophysical Journal 606:1, 221-236
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Kazuo Futamoto, Kazuhisa Mitsuda, Yoh Takei, Ryuichi Fujimoto, and Noriko Y. Yamasaki. (2004) Detection of Highly Ionized O and Ne Absorption Lines in the X-Ray Spectrum of 4U 1820−303 in the Globular Cluster NGC 6624. The Astrophysical Journal 605:2, 793-799
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Joseph A. Collins, J. Michael Shull, and Mark L. Giroux. (2004) Highly Ionized High-Velocity Clouds toward PKS 2155−304 and Markarian 509. The Astrophysical Journal 605:1, 216-229
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Susumu Inoue. (2004) Probing the cosmic reionization history and local environment of gamma-ray bursts through radio dispersion. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 348:3, 999-1008
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R. Schlickeiser and P. K. Shukla. (2003) Cosmological Magnetic Field Generation by the Weibel Instability. The Astrophysical Journal Letters 599:2, L57-L60
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Kunihito Ioka. (2003) The Cosmic Dispersion Measure from Gamma-Ray Burst Afterglows: Probing the Reionization History and the Burst Environment. The Astrophysical Journal Letters 598:2, L79-L82
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Barry McKernan, Tahir Yaqoob, Richard Mushotzky, Ian M. George, and T. Jane Turner. (2003) A Warm/Hot Intergalactic Medium toward 3C 120?. The Astrophysical Journal Letters 598:2, L83-L86
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James E. Taylor, Kavilan Moodley, J. M. Diego. (2003) Observing the Sunyaev?Zel'dovich effect closer to home. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 345:4, 1127-1132
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Frederik B.S. Paerels, Steven M. Kahn. (2003) HIGH-RESOLUTION X-RAY SPECTROSCOPY WITH CHANDRA AND XMM-NEWTON. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 41:1, 291-342
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Patrick Valageas, Richard Schaeffer, Joseph Silk. (2003) The phase diagram of the intergalactic medium and the entropy floor of groups and clusters: are clusters born warm?. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 344:1, 53-59
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Curtis V. Manning. (2003) The Nature and Origin of the Nonvoid Lyα Cloud Population. The Astrophysical Journal 595:1, 19-28
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Xuelei Chen, David H. Weinberg, Neal Katz, and Romeel Davé. (2003) X-Ray Absorption by the Low-Redshift Intergalactic Medium: A Numerical Study of the Λ Cold Dark Matter Model. The Astrophysical Journal 594:1, 42-62
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Dongsu Ryu, Hyesung Kang, Eric Hallman, and T. W. Jones. (2003) Cosmological Shock Waves and Their Role in the Large-Scale Structure of the Universe. The Astrophysical Journal 593:2, 599-610
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T. J. Ponman, A. J. R. Sanderson, A. Finoguenov. (2003) The Birmingham-CfA cluster scaling project - III. Entropy and similarity in galaxy systems. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 343:1, 331-342
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Curtis V. Manning. (2003) Modeling the Void H i Column Density Spectrum with Subgalactic Halos. The Astrophysical Journal 591:1, 79-100
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Xiang-Ping Wu and Yan-Jie Xue. (2003) Autocorrelation Function of the Soft X-Ray Background Produced by Warm-Hot Gas in Dark Halos. The Astrophysical Journal 590:1, 8-14
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M. Viel, E. Branchini, R. Cen, S. Matarrese, P. Mazzotta, J. P. Ostriker. (2003) Detecting X-ray filaments in the low-redshift Universe with XEUS and Constellation-X. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 341:3, 792-804
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K. R. Sembach, B. P. Wakker, B. D. Savage, P. Richter, M. Meade, J. M. Shull, E. B. Jenkins, G. Sonneborn, and H. W. Moos. (2003) Highly Ionized High-Velocity Gas in the Vicinity of the Galaxy. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 146:1, 165-208
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Taotao Fang, Kenneth R. Sembach, and Claude R. Canizares. (2003) Chandra Detection of Local O vii Heα Absorption along the Sight Line toward 3C 273. The Astrophysical Journal Letters 586:1, L49-L52
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Fabrizio Nicastro, Andreas Zezas, Martin Elvis, Smita Mathur, Fabrizio Fiore, Cesare Cecchi-Pestellini, Douglas Burke, Jeremy Drake, Piergiorgio Casella. (2003) The far-ultraviolet signature of the ‘missing’ baryons in the Local Group of galaxies. Nature 421:6924, 719-721
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Massimiliano Bonamente, Marshall K. Joy, and Richard Lieu. (2003) A Massive Warm Baryonic Halo in the Coma Cluster. The Astrophysical Journal 585:2, 722-729
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Uri Keshet, Eli Waxman, Abraham Loeb, Volker Springel, and Lars Hernquist. (2003) Gamma Rays from Intergalactic Shocks. The Astrophysical Journal 585:1, 128-150
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J. Nevalainen, R. Lieu, M. Bonamente, and D. Lumb. (2003) Soft X-Ray Excess Emission in Clusters of Galaxies Observed with XMM-Newton. The Astrophysical Journal 584:2, 716-728
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Yan-Jie Xue and Xiang-Ping Wu. (2003) Can Radiative Cooling and Nongravitational Heating Explain Simultaneously the Global X-Ray Properties of Clusters and the Unresolved Cosmic X-Ray Background?. The Astrophysical Journal 584:1, 34-44
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M. Markevitch, M. W. Bautz, B. Biller, Y. Butt, R. Edgar, T. Gaetz, G. Garmire, C. E. Grant, P. Green, M. Juda, P. P. Plucinsky, D. Schwartz, R. Smith, A. Vikhlinin, S. Virani, B. J. Wargelin, and S. Wolk. (2003) Chandra Spectra of the Soft X-Ray Diffuse Background. The Astrophysical Journal 583:1, 70-84
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Smita Mathur, David H. Weinberg, and Xuelei Chen. (2003) Tracing the Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium at Low Redshift: X-Ray Forest Observations toward H1821+643. The Astrophysical Journal 582:1, 82-94
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Francesco Miniati. (2002) Intergalactic shock acceleration and the cosmic gamma-ray background. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 337:1, 199-208
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Caleb A. Scharf and Reshmi Mukherjee. (2002) A Statistical Detection of Gamma-Ray Emission from Galaxy Clusters: Implications for the Gamma-Ray Background and Structure Formation.