Special report: controversies in bone and mineral metabolism in chronic kidney disease

Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of bone turnover abnormalities in renal osteodystrophy

As in 2011, when the Spanish Society of Nephrology (SEN) published the Spanish adaptation to the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) universal Guideline on Chronic Kidney Disease–Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD–MBD), this document contains an update and an adaptation of the 2017 KDIGO guidelines to our setting. In this field, as in many other areas of nephrology, it has been impossible to irrefutably answer many questions, which remain pending. However, there is no doubt that the close relationship between the CKD–MBD/cardiovascular disease/morbidity and mortality complex and new randomised clinical trials in some areas and the development of new drugs have yielded significant advances in this field and created the need for this update. We would therefore highlight the slight divergences that we propose in the ideal objectives for biochemical abnormalities in the CKD–MBD complex compared to the KDIGO suggestions (for example, in relation to parathyroid hormone or phosphate), the role of native vitamin D and analogues in the control of secondary hyperparathyroidism and the contribution of new phosphate binders and calcimimetics. Attention should also be drawn to the adoption of important new developments in the diagnosis of bone abnormalities in patients with kidney disease and to the need to be more proactive in treating them. In any event, the current speed at which innovations are taking place, while perhaps slower than we might like, globally drives the need for more frequent updates (for example, through Nefrología al día).

Al igual a como ocurrió en el año 2011, cuando la Sociedad Española de Nefrología (SEN) publicó la adaptación española a las guías universales Kidney Disease Initiative Global Outcomes (KDIGO) sobre alteraciones del metabolismo óseo-mineral en la enfermedad renal crónica (CKD–MBD), este documento contiene una actualización y adaptación a nuestro medio de las guías KDIGO del 2017. En este campo, al igual que en muchos otros nefrológicos, no se ha podido contestar irrefutablemente muchas cuestiones pendientes aún. Sin embargo, no hay duda acerca de la estrecha relación entre el complejo CKD–MBD/patología cardiovascular/morbimortalidad, nuevos ensayos clínicos aleatorizados en algunas áreas o la aparición de nuevos fármacos han proporcionado notables avances en este campo y crearon la necesidad de dicha actualización. Así, destacamos las discretas divergencias que ofrecemos en los objetivos ideales de las alteraciones bioquímicas del complejo CKD–MBD respecto a las sugerencias de las KDIGO (en relación, por ejemplo, con la hormona paratiroidea o fosfato), el papel de la vitamina D nativa y análogos en el control del hiperparatiroidismo secundario, así como la contribución de nuevos captores de fosfato y calcimiméticos. Asimismo, es de destacar la adopción de importantes novedades en el diagnóstico de las alteraciones óseas del paciente renal y la necesidad de tomar actitudes más proactivas en su tratamiento. En cualquier caso, la velocidad a la que acaecen novedades actualmente, aunque menor de la que sería deseable, sí impulsan globalmente la necesidad de actualizaciones con menor demora (por ejemplo, a través de Nefrología al día).

Al igual a como ocurrió en el año 2011, cuando la Sociedad Española de Nefrología (SEN) publicó la adaptación española a las guías universales Kidney Disease Initiative Global Outcomes (KDIGO) sobre alteraciones del metabolismo óseo-mineral en la enfermedad renal crónica (CKD-MBD), este documento contiene una actualización y adaptación a nuestro medio de las guías KDIGO del 2017. En este campo, al igual que en muchos otros nefrológicos, no se ha podido contestar irrefutablemente muchas cuestiones pendientes aún. Sin embargo, no hay duda acerca de la estrecha relación entre el complejo CKD-MBD/patología cardiovascular/morbimortalidad, nuevos ensayos clínicos aleatorizados en algunas áreas o la aparición de nuevos fármacos han proporcionado notables avances en este campo y crearon la necesidad de dicha actualización. Así, destacamos las discretas divergencias que ofrecemos en los objetivos ideales de las alteraciones bioquímicas del complejo CKD-MBD respecto a las sugerencias de las KDIGO (en relación, por ejemplo, con la hormona paratiroidea o fosfato), el papel de la vitamina D nativa y análogos en el control del hiperparatiroidismo secundario, así como la contribución de nuevos captores de fosfato y calcimiméticos. Asimismo, es de destacar la adopción de importantes novedades en el diagnóstico de las alteraciones óseas del paciente renal y la necesidad de tomar actitudes más proactivas en su tratamiento. En cualquier caso, la velocidad a la que acaecen novedades actualmente, aunque menor de la que sería deseable, sí impulsan globalmente la necesidad de actualizaciones con menor demora (por ejemplo, a través de Nefrología al día).

As in 2011, when the Spanish Society of Nephrology (SEN) published the Spanish adaptation to the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) universal Guideline on Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD), this document contains an update and an adaptation of the 2017 KDIGO guidelines to our setting. In this field, as in many other areas of nephrology, it has been impossible to irrefutably answer many questions, which remain pending. However, there is no doubt that the close relationship between the CKD-MBD/cardiovascular disease/morbidity and mortality complex and new randomised clinical trials in some areas and the development of new drugs have yielded significant advances in this field and created the need for this update. We would therefore highlight the slight divergences that we propose in the ideal objectives for biochemical abnormalities in the CKD-MBD complex compared to the KDIGO suggestions (for example, in relation to parathyroid hormone or phosphate), the role of native vitamin D and analogues in the control of secondary hyperparathyroidism and the contribution of new phosphate binders and calcimimetics. Attention should also be drawn to the adoption of important new developments in the diagnosis of bone abnormalities in patients with kidney disease and to the need to be more proactive in treating them. In any event, the current speed at which innovations are taking place, while perhaps slower than we might like, globally drives the need for more frequent updates (for example, through Nefrología al día).

Bone's ability to adapt is governed by the network of embedded osteocytes, which inhabit individual pores called lacunae. The morphology of these lacunae and their resident osteocytes are known to change with age and diseases such as postmenopausal osteoporosis. However, it is unclear whether alterations in lacunar morphology are present in younger populations with osteoporosis. To investigate this, we implemented a previously validated methodology to image and quantify the three-dimensional morphometries of lacunae on a large scale with ultra-high-resolution micro-computed tomography (microCT) in transiliac bone biopsies from three groups of premenopausal women: control n = 39; idiopathic osteoporosis (IOP) n = 45; idiopathic low BMD (ILBMD) n = 19. Lacunar morphometric parameters were measured in both trabecular and cortical bone such as lacunar density (Lc.N/BV), lacunar volume (Lc.V), and lacunar sphericity (Lc.Sr). These were then compared against each other and also with previously measured tissue morphometries such as bone volume density (BV/TV), trabecular separation (Tb.Sp), trabecular number (Tb.N), and others. We detected no differences in lacunar morphology between the IOP, ILBMD and healthy premenopausal women. In contrast, we did find significant differences between lacunar morphologies including Lc.N/BV, Lc. V, and Lc. Sr in cortical and trabecular regions within all three groups (p < 0.001), which was consistent with our previous findings on a subgroup of the healthy group. Furthermore, we discovered strong correlations between Lc. Sr from trabecular regions with the measured BV/TV (R = −0.90, p < 0.05). The findings and comprehensive lacunar dataset we present here will be a crucial foundation for future investigations of the relationship between osteocyte lacunar morphology and disease.

Both type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus cause a low-turnover bone disorder that increases fragility. Diabetes also increases the risk of chronic renal insufficiency, end-stage renal disease, and the need for kidney or simultaneous pancreas-kidney transplantation. As kidney function declines, major clinical and biochemical abnormalities develop that have been demonstrated to adversely affect bone health. In turn, these disturbances in mineral and bone metabolism combine with the underlying effects of diabetes on bone, which result in greater fragility, morbidity, and mortality than caused by either diabetes or renal insufficiency alone. In this chapter, we will review the pathophysiology by which chronic kidney disease affects bone and mineral metabolism, how this can especially impact fracture risk for patients with diabetic nephropathy, and the available options for diagnosis and treatment. We will also review the effects that end-stage renal failure and renal transplantation can have on bone metabolism and fracture risk in patients with diabetes.