Abstract
Despite many studies on the prevalence of breakfast eating, we know little about factors that determine breakfast eating patterns. Our aim was to find out to which extent breakfast eating frequency is influenced by genetic and environmental factors using twin and twin-family models in a population sample of 16-year-old twins (n = 5250) and their parents (n = 4663). In common effects sex-limitation models, additive genetic effects explained 41% (95% CI: 21–63%) of the variance in breakfast eating in girls and 66% (95% CI: 47–79%) in boys, and common environmental effects 45% (95% CI: 23–62%) in girls and 14% (95% CI: 5–29%) in boys. Of twin-family models, phenotypic assortment models fitted the data best. Heritability estimates increased somewhat (72%, 95% CI: 46–98% in girls and 63%, 95% CI: 38–89%) in boys. Common family environment remained substantial in both sexes. Cultural transmission was nonsignificant. The relative influence of genetic and family factors on adolescent breakfast eating frequency differs by sex and is generation-specific.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
al Sudairy, A., and Howard, K. (1992). Dietary habits of technical and vocational students in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia-I. Meal skipping. J. R. Soc. Health 112:217-218.
Baumert, P. W., Jr., Henderson, J. M., and Thompson, N. J. (1998). Health risk behaviors of adolescent participants in organized sports. J. Adolesc. Health 22:460-465.
Bellisle, F., Monneuse, M. O., Steptoe, A., and Wardle, J. (1995). Weight concerns and eating patterns: a survey of university students in Europe. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 19:723-730.
Benton, D., and Parker, P. Y. (1998). Breakfast blood glucose, and cognition. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 67:772S-778S.
Brugman, E., Meulmeester, J. F., Spec-van der Wekke, A., Beuker, R. J., Zaadstra, B. M., Radder, J. J., and Verloove-Vanhorick, P. S. (1997). Dieting, weight and health in adolescents in The Netherlands. Int. J, Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 21:54-60.
Brugman, E., Meulmeester, J. F., Spec-van der Wekke, A., and Verloove-Vanhorick, S. P. (1998). Breakfast-skipping in children and young adolescents in The Netherlands. Eur. J. Public Health 8:325-328.
de Castro, J. M. (1993). Genetic influences on daily intake and meal patterns of humans. Physiol. Behav. 53:777-782.
Eaves, L. J., Fulker, D. W., and Heath, A. C. (1989). The effects of social homogamy and cultural inheritance on the covariances of twins and their parents: a LISREL model. Behav. Genet, 19:113-122.
Faith, M. S., Rha, S. S., Neale, M. C., and Allison, D. B. (1999). Evidence for genetic in.uences on human energy intake: results from a twin study using measured observations. Behav. Genet, 29:145-154.
Falciglia, G. A., and Norton, P. A. (1994). Evidence for a genetic influence on preference for some foods. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 94:154-158.
Falconer, D. S., and Mackay, T. F. C. (1996). Introduction to quantitative genetics. 4th Ed. Prentice Hall, Harlow.
Fisher, M., Schneider, M., Pegler, C., and Napolitano, B. (1991). Eating attitudes, health-risk behaviors, self-esteem, and anxiety among adolescent females in a suburban high school. J. Adolesc. Health 12:377-384.
Haines, P. S., Guilkey, D. K., and Popkin, B. M. (1996). Trends in breakfast consumption of US adults between 1965 and 1991. J, Am. Diet. Assoc. 96:464-470.
Heitmann, B. L., Harris, J. R., Lissner, L., and Pedersen, N. L. (1999). Genetic effects on weight change and food intake in Swedish adult twins. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 69:597-602.
Hur, Y. M., Bouchard, T. J., Jr., and Eckert, E. (1998). Genetic and environmental influences on self-reported diet: a rearedapart twin study. Physiol Behav. 64:629-636.
Höglund, D., Samuelson, G., and Mark, A. (1998). Food habits in Swedish adolescents in relation to socioeconomic conditions. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 52:784-789.
Isralowitz, R. E., and Trostler, N. (1996). Substance use: toward an understanding of its relation to nutrition-related attitudes and behavior among Israeli high school youth. J. Adolesc. Health 19:184-189.
Kleemola, P., Roos, E., and Prättälä, R. (1997). —Päivan tärkein ateria - aterioiden koostumus vuonna 1992 [The most important meal of the day-composition of meals in 1992; in Finnish]. Suom. Lääkäril. 52:1027-1032.
Maes, H. H. M., Neale, M. C., and Eaves. L. J. (1997). Genetic and environmental factors in relative body weight and human adiposity. Behav. Genet. 27:325-351.
Melve, K. K., and Baerheim, A. (1994). Signs of subclinical eating disorders in teenage girls. Scand, J. Prim. Health Care 12:197-203.
Michaud, C., Musse, N., Nicolas, J.P., and Méjean, L. (1990). Nutrient intakes and food consumption in the adolescent's schoolday breakfast in Lorraine (France). Nutr. Res. 10:1195-1203.
Murphy, J. M., Pagano, M. E., Nachmani, J., Sperling, P., Kane, S., and Kleinman, R. E. (1998). The relationship of school breakfast to psychosocial and academic functioning: cross-sectional and longitudinal observations in an innercity school sample. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med, 152:899- 907.
Mx: home page. (2001). http://views.vcu.edu/mx/ (accessed 27 November 2000).
Neale, M. C., and Cardon, L. C. (1992), Methodology for genetic studies of twins and families. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
Neale, M. C., Walters, E. E., Eaves, L. J., Maes, H. H., and Kendler, K. S. (1994). Multivariate genetic analysis of twin-family data on fears: Mx models. Behav. Genet. 24:119-139.
Neumark-Sztainer, D., Story, M., Toporo., E., Himes, J. H., Resnick, M. D., and Blum, R. W. (1997). Covariations of eating behaviors with other health-related behaviors among adolescents, J. Adolesc, Health 20:450-458.
Nicklas, T. A., O'Neil, C. E., and Berenson, G. S. (1998). Nutrient contribution of breakfast, secular trends, and the role of ready-to-eat cereals: a review of data from the Bogalusa Heart Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 67:757S-763S.
Nordlund, G., and Jacobson, T. (1999). —Gymnasieelevernas matvanor relaterat till hur de ma¢ª r och känner sig, deras fysiska aktivitet, deras skolprestationer ock sociala bakgrund. [High school students, food habits in relation to their well-being, physical activity, school performance, and social background; in Swedish]. Pedagogiska rapporter 58, Umea¢ª universitetet.
Nowak, M. (1998). The weight-conscious adolescent: body image, food intake, and weight-related behavior. J. Adolesc. Health 23:389-398.
Partinen, M., Kaprio, J., Koskenvuo, M., Putkonen, P., and Langinvainio, H. (1983). Genetic and environmental determination of human sleep. Sleep 6:179-85.
Pollitt E., Cueto, S., and Jacoby, E. R. (1998). Fasting and cognition in well-and undernourished schoolchildren: a review of three experimental studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 67:779S- 784S.
Powell, C. A., Walker, S. P., Chang, S. M., and Grantham-McGregor, S.M. (1998). Nutrition and education: a randomized trial of the effects of breakfast in rural primary school children. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 68:873-879.
Prättälä, R., and Roos, E. (1999). From regional ethnographies to interdisciplinary approaches-research on meals in Finland. Appetite 32:66-72.
Puska, P., and Smolander, A. (1980). Suomalaisen aikuisväestön terveyskäyttäytyminen, kevät 1980. [The health habits of Finnish adults, spring 1980; in Finnish]. Kansanterveystieteen laitoksen julkaisuja, Series B1.
Rao J. N. K., and Scott A. J. (1984). On chi-squared tests for multiway contingency tables with cell proportions estimated from survey data. Annals of Statistics 12:46-60.
Reynolds, C. A., Baker, L. A., and Pedersen, N. L. (1996). Models of spouse similarity: applications to fluid ability measured in twins and their spouses. Behav. Genet. 26:73-88.
Rose, R. J., Kaprio, J. Winter, T., Koskenvuo, M., and Viken, R. J. (1999). Familial and socioregional environmental effects on abstinence from alcohol at age sixteen. J. Stud Alcohol Suppl. 13:63-74.
Samuelson, G., Bratteby. L. E., Enghardt, H., and Hedgren, M. (1996). Food habits and energy and nutrient intake in Swedish adolescents approaching the year 2000. Acta Paediatr. Suppl, 415:1-19.
Sarna, S., and Kaprio, J. (1980). Use of multiple logistic analysis in twin zygosity diagnosis. Hum. Hered. 30:71-80.
Sarna, S., Kaprio, J., Sistonen, P., and Koskenvuo, M. (1978). Diagnosis of twin zygosity by mailed questionnaire, Hum. Hered. 28:241-254.
SAS, Release 6.12. (1996). SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC.
Shaw, M. E. (1998). Adolescent breakfast skipping: an Australian study. Adolescence 33:851-861.
Siega-Riz, A. M., Popkin, B. M., and Carson, T. (1998). Trends in breakfast consumption for children in the United States from 1965-1991. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 67:748S-756S.
Sosioekonomisen aseman luokitus 1989. (1990). [The classification of socioeconomic status, 1989; in Finnish.]. Käsikirjoja 17. Tilastokeskus, Helsinki.
Stata, Version 7.0. (2000). Stata Corporation, College Station, TX.
tyoelama}. html (accessed 27 October 2000).
Terre, L., Drabman, R. S., and Meydrech, E. F. (1990). Relationships among children's health-related behaviors: a multivariate, developmental perspective. Prev. Med. 19:134-146.
Urho, U.-M., and Hasunen, K. (1999) Yläasteen kouluruokailu 1998 [School meals in junior high school in 1998; in Finnish]. Sosiaali-ja terveysministeriön selvityksiä 5.
van den Bree, M. B., Eaves, L. J., and Dwyer, J. T. (1999). Genetic and environmental influences on eating patterns of twins aged >/ 1/4 50 years. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 70:456-465.
Vink J. M, Groot A. S, Kerkhof G. A., and Boomsma D. I. (2001). Genetic analysis of morningness and eveningness. Chronobiol. 18:809-822.
Wolfe, W. S., Campbell, C. C., Frongillo, E. A., Jr., Haas, J. D., and Melnik, T. A. (1994). Overweight schoolchildren in New York State: prevalence and characteristics. Am. J, Public Health 84:807-813.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Keski-Rahkonen, A., Viken, R.J., Kaprio, J. et al. Genetic and Environmental Factors in Breakfast Eating Patterns. Behav Genet 34, 503–514 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BEGE.0000038488.22974.b1
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BEGE.0000038488.22974.b1