Skip to main content
Log in

Abstract

Adaptation in agriculture to climate change is important for impact andvulnerability assessment and for the development of climate change policy. A wide variety of adaptation options has been proposed as having thepotential to reduce vulnerability of agricultural systems to risks related toclimate change, often in an ad hoc fashion. This paper develops atypology of adaptation to systematically classify and characterize agriculturaladaptation options to climate change, drawing primarily on the Canadiansituation. In particular, it differentiates adaptation options in agricultureaccording to the involvement of different agents (producers, industries,governments); the intent, timing and duration of employment of theadaptation; the form and type of the adaptive measure; and the relationshipto processes already in place to cope with risks associated with climatestresses. A synthesis of research on adaptation options in Canadianagriculture identifies four main categories: (i) technological developments,(ii) government programs and insurance, (iii) farm production practices,and (iv) farm financial management. In addition to these `directadaptations', there are options, particularly information provision, that maystimulate adaptation initiatives. The results reveal that most adaptationoptions are modifications to on-going farm practices and public policydecision-making processes with respect to a suite of changing climatic(including variability and extremes) and non-climatic conditions (political,economic and social). For progress on implementing adaptations to climatechange in agriculture there is a need to better understand the relationshipbetween potential adaptation options and existing farm-level andgovernment decision-making processes and risk management frameworks.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adams, R., Fleming, R., Chang, C., McCarol, B. and Rosenzweig, C. 1995, 'A reassessment of the economic effects of global climate change on U.S. agriculture' Clim. Change 30, 147–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adger, W.N. and Kelly, P.M.: 1999, 'Social vulnerability to climate change and the architecture of entitlements', Miti. & Adapt. Strat. for Glob. Change 4(3/4), 253–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada: 1995, Best Management Practices: Irrigation Management, Ottawa, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada: 2001, Farm Income, Financial Conditions and Government Assistance: Data book, Ottawa, Farm Income and Adaptation Policy Directorate, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J.R.: 1997, 'An “ABC” of risk management in agriculture: Overview of procedures and perspectives', in R.B.M. Huirne, J.B. Hardaker and A.A. Dijkhuizen (eds.), Risk Management Strategies in Agriculture: State of the art and future perspectives, Wageningen, Mansholt Institute, pp. 273–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arthur, L.M. and Van Kooten, G.C.: 1992, 'Climatic impacts on the agribusiness sectors of a prairie economy', Prairie Forum 17(1), 97–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baethgen, W. and Magrin, G.: 1995, 'Assessing the impacts of winter crop production in Uruguay and Argentina using crop simulation models,' in C. Rosenzweig, L. Allen, L. Harper, S. Hollinger and J. Jones (eds.), Climate Change and Agriculture: Analyses of potential international impacts, ASA Special Publication Number 59, Madison, American Society of Agronomy, pp. 207–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barry, P.J. and Baker, C.B.: 1984, 'Financial responses to risk in agriculture', in P.J. Barry (ed.), Risk Management in Agriculture, Ames, Iowa State University Press, pp. 183–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benioff, B., Guill, S. and Lee, J.: 1996, Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessments: An international handbook, Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bijlsma, L., Ehler, C.N., Klein, R.J.T., Kulshrestha, S.M., McLean, R.F., Mimura, N. and Warrick, R.A.: 1996, 'Coastal zones and small islands', in R.T. Watson, M.C. Zinyowera and R.H. Moss (eds.), Climate Change 1995. Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-Technical Analyses, Contribution of Working Group II to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp. 289–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blaikie, P. and Brookefield, H.: 1987, Land Degradation and Society, London, Methuen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boddis, B.: 1994, 'The Canadian crop insurance program', in J. McCulloch and D. Etkin (eds.), Proceedings of a Workshop on Improving Responses to Atmospheric Extremes: The role of insurance and compensation, Toronto, pp. 5.6–5.8.

  • Bradshaw, B., Dolan, A.H. and Smit, B.: 2001, Crop Diversification as an Adaptive Response to Climate and Other Risks in the Prairies, Guelph, Department of Geography, University of Guelph.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brklacich, M., Bryant, C., Veenhof, B. and Beauchesne, A.: 2000, 'Agricultural adaptation to climatic change: A comparative assessment of two types of farming in central Canada', in H. Millward, K. Beesley, B. Ilbery and L. Harrington (eds.), Agricultural and Environmental Sustainability in the New Countryside, Winnipeg, Hignell Printing Limited, pp. 40–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brklacich, M., McNabb, D., Bryant, C. and Dumanski, J.: 1997, 'Adaptability of agriculture systems to global climate change: A Renfrew County, Ontario, Canada pilot study', in B. Ilbery, Q. Chiotti and T. Rickard (eds.), Agricultural Restructuring and Sustainability: A geographical perspective, Wallingford, CAB International, pp. 351–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brklacich, M. and Smit, B.: 1992, 'Implications of changes in climatic averages and variability on food production opportunities in Ontario, Canada,' Clim. Change 20, 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, C.R.: 1994, Approaches to the Study of Agricultural Adaptation to Clim. Change at the Farm Level. Montréal, Université de Montréal.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, C.R. and Johnston, T.R.R.: 1992, Agriculture in the City's Countryside, London Pinter Press.

  • Bryant, C.R., Smit, B., Brklacich, M., Johnston, T., Smithers, J., Chiotti, Q. and Singh, B.: 2000, 'Adaptation in Canadian agriculture to climatic variability and change', Clim. Change 45, 181–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burton, I.: 1997, 'Vulnerability and adaptive response in the context of climate and climate change', Clim. Change 36, 185–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burton, I., Kates, R. and White, G.F.: 1993, The Environment as Hazard, Second Edition, New York, Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Canada 2000, Canada's National Implementation Strategy on Climate Change, Gov't of Canada., Ottawa.

  • Carlson, J.: 1989, 'The importance of agricultural weather information: AMichigan survey', Bulletin of American Meteorological Society 70(4), 366–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, T.R.: 1996, 'Assessing climate change adaptations: The IPCC guidelines', in J.G. Smith, N. Bhatti, G. Menzhulin, R. Benioff, M.I. Budyko, M. Campos, B. Jallow, F. Rijsberman and R.K. Dixon (eds.), Adapting to Climate Change: An International Perspective, New York, Springer, pp. 27–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, T.R, Parry, M.L., Harasawa, H. and Nishioka, S.: 1994, IPCC Technical Guidelines for Assessing Climate Change Impacts and Adaptations, London, Department of Geography, University College London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chamala, S.: 1987, 'Adoption processes and extension strategies for conservation farming', in P.S. Cornish and J.E. Pratley (eds.), Directions in Australian Agriculture, Melbourne, Inkata Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Changnon, S.A., Changnon, D., Ray Fosse, E., Hoganson, D.C., Roth Sr., R.J. and Totsch, J.M.: 1997, 'Effects of recent weather extremes on the insurance industry: Major implications for the atmospheric sciences', Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc. 78(3), 425–435.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiotti, Q.P. and Johnston, T.: 1995, 'Extending the boundaries of climate change research: A discussion on agriculture,' J. Rural Stud. 11(3), 335–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiotti, Q., Johnston, T.R.R., Smit, B. and Ebel, B.: 1997, 'Agricultural response to climate change: A preliminary investigation of farm-level adaptation in southern Alberta', in B. Ilbery, Q. Chiotti and T. Rickard (eds.), Agricultural Restructuring and Sustainability: A geographical perspective, Wallingford, CAB International, pp. 167–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cocklin, C., Blunden, G. and Moran, W.: 1997, 'Sustainability, spatial hierarchies and land-based production', in B. Ilbery, Q. Chiotti and T. Rickard (eds.), Agricultural Restructuring and Sustainability: A geographical perspective, Wallingford, CAB International, pp. 25–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delcourt, D. and Van Kooten, G.C.: 1995, 'How resilient is grain production to climatic change? Sustainable agriculture in a dryland cropping region of western Canada', J. Sust. Agric. 5(3), 37–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Loë, R., Kreutzwiser, R. and Mararu, L.: 1999, Climate Change and the Canadian Water Sector: Impacts and adaptation, Guelph, Natural Resources Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dolan, A.H., Smit, B., Skinner, M.W., Bradshaw, B. and Bryant, C.R.: 2001. Adaptation to Climate Change in Agriculture: Evaluation of Options. (Department of Geography Occasional Paper No. 26).

  • Downing, T.E. 1991 'Vulnerability to hunger in Africa', Gl. Envir. Change 1, 365–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dumanski, J., Coote, D.R., Luciuk, G. and Lok, C.: 1986, 'Soil conservation in Canada,' J. Soil & Water Cons. 41, 204–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duvick, D.N.: 1992, 'Genetic contributions to advances in yield of U.S. maize', Maydica 37, 69–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Easterling, W.E.: 1996, 'Adapting North American agriculture to climate change in review', Agric. & Forest Meteor. 80, 1–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Easterling, W.E., Crosson, P.R., Rosenberg, N.J., McKenney, M.S., Katz, L.A. and Lemon, K.M.: 1993, 'Agricultural impacts of and responses to climate change in the Missouri-Iowa-Nebraska-Kansas region', Clim. Change 24(1—2), 23–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Easterling, W.E., Rosenberg, N.J., Lemon, K.M. and McKenney, M.S.: 1992, 'Simulations of crop responses to climate change: Effects with present technology and currently available adjustments: The “Smart Farmer” scenario', Agric. & Forest Meteorol. 59, 75–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fankhauser, S.: 1996, 'The potential costs of climate change adaptation,' in J.B. Smith, N. Bhatti, G. Menzhulin, R. Bennioff, M. Budyko, M. Campos, B. Jallow and F. Rijsberman (eds.), Adapting to Climate Change: An International Perspective, New York, Springer, pp. 80–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fankhauser, S. and Tol, R.S.J.: 1997, 'The social costs of climate change: The IPCC second assessment report and beyond,' Miti. & Adapt. Strat. for Glob. Change 1, 385–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleisher, B.: 1990, Agricultural Risk Management, Boulder, Lynne Rienner Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glantz, M.H. and Ausubel, J.H.: 1988, 'Impact assessment by analogy: Comparing the impacts of the Ogallala aquifer depletion and CO2 induced climate change,' in M.H. Glantz (ed.), Societal Responses to Regional Climatic Change: Forecasting by analogy, Boulder, Westview, pp. 113–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guerin, L.J. and Guerin, T.R.: 1994, 'Constraints to the adoption of innovations in agricultural research and environmental management: A review,' J. Exp. Agric. 34, 549–571.

    Google Scholar 

  • Houghton, J.T., Jenkins, G.J. and Ephrams, J.J.: 1990, IPCC Scientific Assessment of Global Climate Change, Geneva World Meteorological Organization and United Nations Environmental Plan.

  • Hucq, A., Kowalshi, J., Gutek, L. and Gray, R.: 2000, 'Achieving understanding in agricultural GHG emission reduction', in D. Scott, B. Jones, J. Audrey, R. Gibson, P. Key, L. Mortsch and K. Warriner (eds.), Climate Change Communication: Proceedings of an international conference, Kitchener-Waterloo, Canada, Environment Canada, pp. F3.9–F3.17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hulme, M., Barrow, E.M., Arnell, N.W., Harrison, P.A., Johns, T.C. and Downing, T.E.: 1999, 'Relative impacts of human-induced climate change and natural climate variability', Nature 397, 688–691.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ilbery, B.W.: 1985, Agricultural Geography — A Social and Economic Analysis, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ilbery, B., Chiotti, Q. and Rickard, T.: 1997, Agricultural Restructuring and Sustainability, Toronto, CAB International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): 1996, The IPCC Second Assessment: Climate change 1995, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): 2001, Summary for Policymakers. Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability, A report of Working Group II of the IPCC, Geneva, IPCC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, G.E.: 1967, 'The adoption and diffusion of agricultural practices', World Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology Annals 9(3), 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joseph, A. and Keddie, P.: 1981, 'The diffusion of grain corn production through Southern Ontario 1946—1971,' The Can. Geogr. 23, 333–349.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kates, R.W.: 1985, 'The interaction of climate and society', in R.W. Kates, J.H. Ausubel and M. Berberian (eds.), Climate Impact Assessment, Chichester, John Wiley and Sons, pp. 3–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, P.M. and Adger, W.N.: 2000, 'Theory and practice in assessing vulnerability to climate change and facilitating adaptation', Clim. Change 47, 325–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, M. and Granich, S.: 1995, 'Global warming and development', in S. Morse and M. Stocking (eds.), People and the Environment, London, UCL Press Limited, pp. 69–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klassen, S. and Gilpen, J.: 1998, 'Alberta irrigation in the old and new millennium', Can. Water Res. J. 24(1), 61–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, K.K., Kulshreshtha, S.N. and Klein, S.A.: 1989, 'Agricultural drought impact evaluation model: Description of components', Agric. Syst. 30, 117–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, R.J.T. and Tol, R.S.J.: 1997, Adaptation to Climate Change: Options and technologies, Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewandrowski, J. and Brazee, R.: 1993, 'Farm programs and climate change,' Clim. Change 23, 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Love, B., Boyd, M.S., Lyons, M.A. and Gibson, R.: 1997, 'Testing the effectiveness of government transfers for agricultural revenue stabilization: The case of the western Canadian grain sector', Food Policy 22(2), 175–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lou, H., Skees, J.R. and Marchant, M.A.: 1994, 'Weather information and the potential for intertemporal adverse selection in crop insurance,' Rev. Agric. Econ. 16, 441–451.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, D.: 2000, 'Climate change seen through the eyes of the Canadian insurance industry', in D. Scott, B. Jones, J. Audrey, R. Gibson, P. Key, L. Mortsch and K. Warriner (eds.), Climate Change Communication: Proceedings of an international conference, Kitchener-Waterloo, Environment Canada, pp. A1.29–A1.35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahul, O. and Vermersch, D.: 2000, 'Hedging crop risk with yield insurance futures and options', Eur. Rev. Agric. Econ. 27(2), 109–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Major, D.J., Morrison, R.J., Blackshaw, R.E. and Roth, B.T.: 1991, 'Agronomy of dryland corn production at the northern fringe of the Great Plains', J. Prod. Agric. 4(4), 606–613.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, B., Mayer, N. and Street, R.: 1997, The Canada Country Study: Climate Impacts and Adaptation, National Summary for Policy Makers, Environment Canada.

  • McCulloch, J. and Etkin, D.: 1994, Proceedings of a Workshop on Improving Responses to Atmospheric Extremes: The role of insurance and compensation, Toronto, Environment Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendelsohn, R.: 1998, 'Climate-change damages', in W.D. Nordaus, (ed.), Economics and Policy Issues in Climate Change, Washington, D.C., Resources for the Future.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendelsohn, R., Nordaus, W.D. and Shaw, D.: 1994, 'The impact of global warming on agriculture: A Ricardian analysis', Amer. Econ. Rev., 84(4), 753–771.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mizina, S.V., Smith, J.B., Gossen, E., Spiecker, K.F. and Witkowski, S.L.: 1999, 'An evaluation of adaptation options for climate change impacts on agriculture in Kazakhstan', Miti. & Adapt. Strat. for Glob. Change 4, 25–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, A.: 1994, 'Assessing the economic value of weather forecasts: An overview of methods, results and issues', Meteor. Appl. 1, 69–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nordhaus, W.D.: 1991, 'To slow or not to slow: The economics of the greenhouse effect', Econ. J. 101, 920–937.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olmstead, C.W.: 1970, 'The phenomena, functioning units and systems of agriculture', Geographica Polonica 19, 31–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parry, M.L.: 1985, 'The impact of climatic variations on agricultural margins', in R.W. Kates, J.H. Ausubel and M. Berberian (eds.), Climate Impact Assessment: Scope 27, Chichester, John Wiley and Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parry, M.L. and Carter, T.R.: 1989, 'An assessment of the effects of climatic change on agriculture', Clim. Change 15, 95–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pittock, B. and Jones, R.N.: 2000, 'Adaptation to what and why?', Envir. Monit. Assess. 61, 9–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reilly, J.: 1995, 'Climate change and global agriculture: Recent findings and issues', Amer. J. Agric., Econ. 77, 727–733.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reilly, J. and Schimmelpfennig, D.: 1999, 'Agricultural impact assessment, vulnerability, and the scope for adaptation', Clim. Change 43, 745–788.

    Google Scholar 

  • Risbey, J., Kandlikar, M. and Dowlatabadi, H.: 1999, 'Scale, context, and decision making in agricultural adaptation to climate variability and change', Miti. & Adapt. Strat. for Glob. Change, 4(2), 137–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, E.M.: 1983, Diffusion of Innovations, third edition, New York, The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers E.M. and Shoemaker, F.F.: 1971, Communication of Innovations: A cross-cultural approach, New York, The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Romain,W.E. and Calkins, P.: 1996, 'Pressures to reform agricultural safety net programs: A Quebec perspective', Can. J. Agric. Econ. 44, 375–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, N.J.: 1981, 'Technologies and strategies in weatherproofing crop production', in L.E. Slater and S.K. Levins (eds.), Climates Impact on Food Supplies: Strategies and technologies for climate-defensive food production, Boulder, Westview Press, pp. 157–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, N.J.: 1992, 'The increasing CO2 concentration in the atmosphere and its implication for agricultural productivity, Part II: Effects through CO2 induced climatic change', Clim. Change 4, 239–254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenzweig, C.: 1985, 'Potential CO2-induced climatic effects on North American wheat producing regions', Clim. Change 7, 367–389.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenzwieg, C. and Parry, M.L.: 1994, 'Potential impact of climate change on world food supply', Nature 367, 133–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz, A., Just, R.E. and Furtan, H.: 1994, 'Crop insurance in the context of Canadian and U.S. farm programs', in D.L. Hueth and W.H. Furtan (eds.), Economics of Agricultural Crop Insurance: Theory and evidence, Boston, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 45–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schweger, C. and Hooey, C.: 1991, 'Climate change and the future of prairie agriculture', in J. Martin (ed.), Alternative Futures for Prairie Agricultural Communities, Edmonton, University of Alberta, pp. 1–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slater, G.A. (ed.): 1994, Genetic Improvement of Field Crops, New York, Marcel Dekker Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, M.W., Smit, B., Dolan, A.H., Bradshaw, B. and Bryant, C.R.: 2001, Adaptation Options to Climate Change in Canadian Agriculture: An Inventory and Typology, (Department of Geography Occasional paper No. 25.). Guelph: University of Guelph, 36 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B. (ed.): 1993, Adaptation to Climatic Variability and Change, Guelph Environment Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B.: 1994, 'Climate, compensation and adaptation', in J. McCulloch and D. Etkin (eds.), Proceedings of a Workshop on Improving Responses to Atmospheric Extremes: The role of insurance and compensation, Toronto, Environment Canada/The Climate Institute, pp. 2.29–2.37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B. 2001, 'Adaptation to climate change,' in Climate Change in Agriculture Workshop Proceedings, Canadian Agri-Food Research Council. Ottawa, April pp. 39–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B., Blain, R. and Keddie, P. 1997, 'Corn hybrid selection and climatic variability: Gambling with nature?' Can. Geogr. 41, 429–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B., Brklacich, M., Stewart, R.B., McBride, R., Brown, M. and Bond, D.: 1989, 'Sensitivity of crop yields and land resource potential to climatic change in Ontario', Clim. Change 14, 153–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B., Burton, I., Klein, R.J.T. and Street, R.: 1999, 'The science of adaptation: A framework for assessment', Miti. & Adaptation Strat. for Glob. Change 4, 199–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B., Burton, I., Klein, R.J.T. and Wandel, J.: 2000, 'An anatomy of adaptation to climate change and variability', Clim. Change 45, 223–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B., Harvey, E. and Smithers, C.: 2000, 'How is climate change relevant to farmers?', in D. Scott, B. Jones, J. Audrey, R. Gibson, P. Key, L. Mortsch and K. Warriner (eds.), Climate Change Communication: Proceedings of an international conference, Kitchener-Waterloo, Environment Canada, pp. F3.18–F3.25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B., McNabb, D. and Smithers, J.: 1996, 'Agricultural adaptation to climatic variation', Clim. Change 33, 7–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J.B.: 1996, 'Using a decision matrix to assess climate change adaptation', in J.B. Smith, N. Bhatti, G. Menzhulin, R. Benioff, M.I. Budyko, M. Campos, B. Jallow and F. Rijsberman (eds.), Adapting to Climate Change: An international Perspective, New York, Springer, pp. 68–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J.B. and Lenhart, S.S.: 1996, 'Climate change adaptation policy options', Clim. Res. 6, 193–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smithers, C.: 1998, Crop Insurance and Farm Management of Weather-Related Risks, M.A. thesis, Department of Geography, Guelph, Ontario, University of Guelph.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smithers, J.A. and Blay-Palmer, A.: 2000, 'Technology innovation as a strategy for climate change adaptation in agriculture', forthcoming in Applied Geography.

  • Smithers, J. and Smit, B.: 1997, 'Agricultural system response to environmental stress', in B. Ilbery, Q. Chiotti and T. Rickard (eds.), Agricultural Restructuring and Sustainability: A geographical perspective, Wallingford, CAB International, pp. 167–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spaling, H.: 1995, 'Analyzing cumulative environmental effects of agricultural land drainage in Southern Ontario, Canada', Agric. Ecosyst. Envir. 53, 279–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stakhiv, E.: 1993, Evaluation of IPCC Adaptation Strategies, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, Institute for Water Resources, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swart, R.J. and Vellinga, P.: 1994, 'The “ultimate objective” of the framework convention on climate change requires a new approach in climate change research', Clim. Change 26, 343–349.

    Google Scholar 

  • Titus, J.G.: 1990, 'Strategies for adapting to the greenhouse effect', J. Amer. Planning Assoc. 56(3), 311–323.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tol, R.S.J., Fankhauser, S. and Smith, J.B.: 1998, 'The scope for adaptation to climate change: What can we learn from the impact literature?', Gl. Envir. Change 8(2), 109–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tollenaar, M., McCullough, D.E. and Dwyer, L.M.: 1994, 'Physiological basis of the genetic improvement of corn', in G.A. Slater (ed.), Genetic Improvement of Field Crops, New York, Marcel Dekker Inc, pp. 83–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tollenaar, M. and Wu, J.: 1999, 'Yield improvement in temperate maize is attributable to greater stress tolerance', Crop Sci. 39, 1597–1604.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turvey, C.G.: 2000, 'Weather derivatives for specific event risks in agriculture', submitted to Review of Agricultural Economics.

  • Turvey, C.G. and Baker, T.G.: 1990, 'A farm-level financial analysis of farmers' use of futures and options under alternative farm programs', Amer. J. Agric. Econ. (November), 946–957.

  • United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): 1992, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: Text, Geneva, World Meteorological Organization and United Nations Environment Program.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): 1998, 'The Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC', in UNFCCC, Report of the Conference of the Parties Third Session, Kyoto, UNFCCC, pp. 4–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Herk, J.: 2001, 'Stakeholder presentations: W.G. Thompson and Sons', in E. Wall (ed.), Final Report of a Workshop on Risks and Opportunities from Climate Change for the Agricultural Sector, Guelph, Farming Systems Research, University of Guelph, pp. 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Kooten, G.C.: 1995, 'Climatic change and Canada's boreal forest: Socio-economic issues and implications for land use', Can. J. Agric. Econ. 43, 167–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Kooten, G.C. and Arthur, L.M.: 1997, 'Economic development with environmental security: Policy conundrum in rural Canada', Amer. J. Agric. Econ. 79(5), 1508–1514.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wall, E. 2001, Risks and Opportunities from Climate Change for the Agricultural Sector, Report of the CCIDRN Agriculture Workshop, Guelph, March.

  • Wandel, J. and Smit, B.: 2000, 'Agricultural risk management in light of climate variability and change', in H. Milward, K. Beesley, B. Ilbery and L. Harrington (eds.). Agricultural and Environmental Sustainability in the New Countryside, Winnipeg, Hignell Printing Limited, pp. 30–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, H.H., Hanson, S.D., Meyers, R.J. and Black, J.R.: 1998, 'The effects of crop yield insurance designs on farmer participation and welfare', Amer. J. Agric. Econ. 80, 806–820.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheaton, E.E. and McIver, D.C.: 1999, 'A framework and key questions for adapting to climate variability and change', Miti. & Adapt. Strat. for Glob. Change 4, 215–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilks, D.: 1992, 'Tactical decision making using short-range forecasts: timing alfalfa harvests', J.Appl. Meteor. 21, 1455–1465.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ye, Y. and Yeh, M.H.: 1995, 'A comparative evaluation of yield risk reductions with alternative crop insurance programs in Manitoba', Can. J. Agric. Econ. 43, 57–71.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Smit, B., Skinner, M.W. Adaptation options in agriculture to climate change: a typology. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 7, 85–114 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015862228270

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015862228270

Navigation