Skip to main content
Log in

Over-exploitation of a broadcast spawning marine invertebrate: Decline of the white abalone

  • Published:
Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Marine invertebrates have long been consideredto be resistant to overfishing. However, agrowing number of exploited taxa have declinedsubstantially and even disappeared from partsof their former range. We consider the case ofthe white abalone (Haliotis sorenseni);the first marine invertebrate proposed for theUS endangered species list. This high-valuespecies was one of five abalones targeted inthe California and Mexico fisheries; it is nowrare and protected from fishing. The biologicalcharacteristics of this deep-living abaloneindicate that it was particularly vulnerable toover-exploitation; reduction of density orgroup size is now known to lead to declines infertilization success and recruitment failure.Warning signs of potential problems existedboth pre- and post-exploitation but were notrecognized. In particular, serial depletion wasnot detected because catch was not analyzedspatially, perhaps because total landings werereasonably stable for the short period ofexploitation. Recent submersible surveys led toestimates that white abalone now number lessthan 2,600 animals or 0.1% of the estimatedpre-exploitation population size. Densities andestimated population sizes are less than 100animals, at all but one location. Alternateexplanations for the decline in abundance wereconsidered and only exploitation-linkedfactors, such as sub-legal mortality andillegal fishing, were likely contributors.Episodic recruitment appears to be acharacteristic of broadcast-spawning,long-lived species and may make themparticularly vulnerable to over-exploitation.Management strategies based on size limits thatallow a few years of spawning prior to reachingminimum legal size are insufficient.Sustainable fisheries will require multipleprotected areas to preserve brood stockaggregations necessary for successfulfertilization.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allee, W.C., Emerson, A.E., Park, O., Park, T. and Schmidt, K.P. (1949) Principles of Animal Ecology. Saunders Publishing Company, Philadelphia, PN. 837 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altstatt, J.M., Ambrose, R.F., Engle, J.M., Haaker, P.L., Lafferty, K.D. and Raimondi, P. T. (1996) Recent declines of black abalone Haliotis cracherodii on the mainland coast of central California. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 142, 185–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Babcock, R. and Keesing, J. (1999) Fertilization biology of the abalone Haliotis laevigata: Laboratory and field studies. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 56, 1668–1678.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartsch, P. (1940) TheWest American Haliotis. Proc. US Nat. Mus. 89(3094), 49–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beinssen, K. (1979) Fishing power of divers in the abalone fishery of Victoria, Australia. Rapp. P.-v. Ruen. Cons int. Explor. Mer. 175, 20–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonnot, P. (1930) Abalone in California. Cal. Fish Game. 16, 15–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Breen, P.A. (1986) Management of the British Columbia Fishery for Northern Abalone (Haliotis kamtschatkana). Can. Species. Pub. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 92, 300–312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burge, R., Shultz, S. and Odemar, M. (1975) Draft report on recent abalone research in California with recommendations for management. Presented to the California Fish and Game Commission, 17 January 1975, San Diego.

  • Caddy, J.F. (1989) A perspective on the population dynamics and assessment of scallop fisheries with special reference to the sea scallop, Placopectin magellanicus Gmelin. In: Caddy, J.F. (ed.), Marine Invertebrate Fisheries: Their Assessment and Management. John Wiley and Sons, NY, pp. 559–574.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlton, J.T., Geller, J.B., Reaka-Kudla, M.L. and Norse, E.A. (1990) Historical extinctions in the sea. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 30, 515–538.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlton, J.T. (1993) Neoextinctions of marine invertebrates. Am Zool. 33, 499–509.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coe, W.R. (1955) Ecology of the bean clam Donax gouldi on the coast of southern California. Ecology. 36, 512–514.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coe, W.R. (1956) Fluctuations in populations of littoral marine invertebrates. J. Mar. Res. 15, 212–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, L.C. (1954) The population consequences of life history phenomena. Quart. Rev. Biol. 29, 103–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conand, G. (1997) Are holothurian fisheries for export sustainable? In: Lessios, H.A. and MacIntyre, I.G. (eds.), Proceedings of the Eighth International Coral Reef Symposium. Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Panama, pp. 2,021–2,026.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, K.W. (1960) Review of the abalone of California. Cal. Fish Game. 46, 381–406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, K.W. (1962) California Abalones. Family Haliotidae. Cal. Dept. Fish Game Fish. Bull. 118, 1–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Croker, R.S. (1931) Abalones. Cal. Dept. Fish Game Fish. Bull. 30, 58–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daniels, R. and Floren, R. (1998) Poaching pressures in northern Californias abalone fishery. J. Shellfish Res. 17, 859–862.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, G.E., Haaker, P.L. and Richards, D.V. (1996) Status and trends of white abalone at the California Channel Islands. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 125, 42–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, G.E., Haaker, P.L. and Richards, D.V. (1998) The perilous condition of white abalone, Haliotis sorenseni, Bartsch, 1940. J. Shellfish Res. 17, 871–875.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, G.E., Richards, D.V., Haaker, P.L. and Parker, D.O. (1992) Abalone population declines and fishery management in southern California. In: Shepherd, S.A., Tegner, M.J. and Guzman del Proo, S.A. (eds.), Abalone of the World; Biology, Fisheries and Culture. Fishing News Books, pp. 237–249.

  • Dugan, J.E. and Davis, G.E. (1993) The role of refugia in management of coastal fisheries. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 50, 2040–2052.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fairweather, P.G. (1991) Implications of supply-side ecology for environmental assessment and management. Trends Ecol. Evol. 6(2), 60–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fogarty, M.J., Sissenwine, M.P. and Cohen, E.B. (1991) Recruitment variability and the dynamics of exploited marine populations. Trends Ecol. Evol. 6(8), 241–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frank, P.W. (1968) Life histories and community structure. Ecology 49(2), 355–357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, C.S., Thomson, M., Chun, C., Haaker, P.L. and Hedrick, R.P. (1997) Withering syndrome of the black abalone, Haliotis cracherodii (Leach): Water temperature, food availability and parasites as possible causes. J. Shellfish Res. 16(2), 403–411.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guzman del Proo, S.A. (1992) A review of the biology of abalone and its fishery in Mexico. In: Shepherd, S.A., Tegner, M.J. and Guzman del Proo, S.A. (eds.), Abalone of the World; Biology, Fisheries and Culture. Fishing News Books, pp. 341–360.

  • Haaker, P.L. (1994) Assessment of abalone resources at the Channel Islands. In: Halvorson, W.L. and Maender, G.J. (eds.), The Fourth California Islands Symposium. Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, pp. 83–95.

  • Haaker, P.L. (1998) White abalone-off the deep end forever? Outdoor California, January- February 17–20.

  • Haaker, P.L., Richards, D.V. and Taniguchi, I. (2000) White abalone program. October 9- 25, 1999 Cruise Report. CSFG, 330 Golden Shore Suite 50, Long Beach, California. 90802.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayward, T.L. (1997) Pacific ocean climate change: atmospheric forcing, ocean circulation and ecosystem response. Trends Ecol. Evol. 12(4), 150–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobday, A.J. and Tegner, M.J. (2000) Status review of white abalone (Haliotis sorenseni) throughout its range in California and Mexico. NOAA Technical Memorandum. NOAA-TMNMFS-SWR-035. US Department of Commerce.

  • Howorth, P.C. (1978). The Abalone Book. Naturegraph Publishers, Happycamp, California. 61 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, T.P. and Tanner, J.E. (2000) Recruitment failure, life histories, and long-term decline of Caribbean corals. Ecology 81(8), 2250–2263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jamieson, G.S. (1993) Marine invertebrate fisheries: evaluation of fisheries over-exploitation concerns. Am. Zool. 33, 551–567.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karpov, K.A., Haaker, P.L., Albin, D., Taniguchi, I.K. and Kushner, D. (1998) The red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, in California: Importance of depth refuge to abalone management. J. Shellfish Res. 17(3), 863–870.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karpov, K.A., Haaker, P.L., Tanaguchi, I.K. and Rogers-Bennet, C. (2000) Serial depletion and the collapse of the California abalone fishery. Canadian Special Publications in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (in press).

  • Leighton, D.L. (1972) Laboratory observations on the early growth of the abalone, Haliotis sorenseni, and the effect of temperature on larval development and settling success. Fish. Bull. 70(2), 373–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leighton, D.L. and Lewis, C.A. (1982) Experimental hybridization in abalone. Int. J. Invert. Reprod. 5, 273–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levitan, D.R. (1995) The ecology of fertilization in free-spawning marine invertebrates. In: McEdward, L. (ed.), Ecology of Marine Invertebrate Larvae. CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 123–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levitan, D.R., Sewell, M.A. and Chia, F. (1992) How distribution and abundance influence fertilization success in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus franciscanus. Ecology 73, 248–254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundy, A.L. (1997) The California Abalone Industry, a Pictorial History. Best Publishing Company, Flagstaff Arizona. 120 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • McArthur, R.H. and Wilson, E.O. (1967) The Theory of Island Biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. 203 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • McShane, P.E. (1992) Early life history of abalone: A review. In Shepherd, S.A., Tegner, M.J. and Guzman del Proo, S.A. eds. Abalone of the World; Biology, Fisheries and Culture. Fishing News Books, pp. 120–138.

  • McShane, P.E. (1998) Assessing stocks of abalone (Haliotis spp.): Methods and constraints. In: Jamieson, G.S. and Campbell, A. (eds.), Proceedings of the North Pacific Symposium on Invertebrate Stock Assessment and Management. Canadian Special Publications in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, pp. 41–48.

  • McShane, P.E., Black, K.P. and Smith, M.G. (1988) Recruitment processes in Haliotis rubra (Mollusca: Gastropoda) and regional hydrodynamics in southeastern Australia imply localized dispersal of larvae. J. Exp.Mar. Biol. Ecol. 124(3), 175–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, J.D., Robbins, T.T. and Friedman, C.S. (2000) Withering syndrome in farmed red abalone Haliotis rufescens: Thermal induction and association with a gastrointestinal rickettsiales-like prokaryote. J. Aquat. Anim. Health. 12, 26–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, S.N. and 17 others (1999) No-take reserve networks. Fisheries 24(11), 11–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owen, B., McLean, J.H. and Meyer, R.J. (1971) Hybridization in the eastern Pacific abalone (Haliotis). Bulletin of the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History Science 9.

  • Pennington, J.T. (1985) The ecology of fertilization of echinoid eggs: The consequences of sperm dilution, adult aggregation and synchronous spawning. Biol. Bull. 169, 417–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prince, J.D., Sellers, T.L., Ford, W.B. and Talbot, S.R. (1987) Experimental evidence for limited dispersal of haliotid larvae (genus Haliotis: Mollusca: Gastropoda). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 106(3), 243–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prince, J.D., Sellers, T.L., Ford, W.B. and Talbot, S.R. (1988) Recruitment, growth, mortality and population structure in a southern Australian population of Haliotis rubra (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Mar. Biol. 100(1), 75–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricker, W.E. (1954) Stock and recruitment. J. Fish. Res. Board Canada 11, 559–623.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, C.M. and Hawkins, J.P. (1999) Extinction risk in the sea. Trends Ecol. Evol. 14(6), 241–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roemmich D. and McGowan, J.A. (1995) Climate warming and the decline of zooplankton in the California Current. Science 267, 1324–1326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scofield, N.B. (1930) Conservation laws provide ample protection for abalone. Cal. Fish Game Bull. 16, 13–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepherd, S.A. (1973) Studies on southern Australian abalone (Genus Haliotis). 1. Ecology of five sympatric species. Aust. J. Mar. Fresh. Res. 24, 217–257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepherd, S.A. (1986) Studies on southern Australian abalone (genus Haliotis): 7. Aggregative behavior of Haliotis laevigata in relation to spawning. Mar. Biol. 90(2), 231–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepherd, S.A. and Rodda, K.R. (in review) Sustainability demands vigilance: Evidence for serial decline of the greenlip abalone fishery and a review of management. Submitted to J. Shellfish Res.

  • Shepherd, S.A. and Breen, P.A. (1992) Mortality in abalone: Its estimation, variability and causes. In: Shepherd, S.A., Tegner, M.J. and Guzman del Proo, S.A. (eds.), Abalone of the World; Biology, Fisheries and Culture. Fishing News Books, pp. 276–304.

  • Shepherd, S.A. and Brown, L.D. (1993) What is an abalone stock: Implications for the role of refugia in conservation. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 50, 2001–2009.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepherd, S.A. and Daume, S. (1996) Ecology and survival of juvenile abalone in a crustose coralline habitat in South Australia. In: Watanabe, Y., Yamashita, Y. and Oozeki, Y. (eds.), Survival strategies in early life stages of marine resources; International Workshop, Yokohama, Japan, October 11- 14, 1994 Rotterdam, Netherlands: A. A. Balkema, pp. 297–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepherd, S.A., Godoy, C. and Clarke, S.M. (1992) Studies on southern Australian abalone (genus Haliotis) 15. Fecundity of H. laevigata. J. Malacol. Soc. Aust. 13, 115–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stearns, S.C. (1976) Life-history tactics: A review of the ideas. Quart. Rev. Biol. 51, 3–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoner, A.W. and Ray-Culp, M. (2000) Evidence for Allee effects in an over-harvested marine gastropod: Density-dependent mating and egg production. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 202, 297–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strathmann, R.R. (1985) Feeding and nonfeeding larval development and life-history evolution in marine invertebrates. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Sys. 16, 339–361.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tegner, M.J. (1989) The California abalone fishery: production, ecological interactions, and prospects for the future. In: Caddy, J.F. (ed.) Marine Invertebrate Fisheries: Their Assessment and Management. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

  • Tegner, M.J. (1992) Brood-stock transplants as an approach to abalone stock enhancement. In: Shepherd, S.A., Tegner, M.J. and Guzman del Proo, S.A. (eds.), Abalone of the World; Biology, Fisheries and Culture. Fishing News Books, pp. 461–473.

  • Tegner, M.J. (1993) Southern California abalones: Can stocks be rebuilt using marine harvest refugia? Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 50(9), 2010–2018.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tegner, M. J., Haaker, P.L., Riser, K.R. and Vilchis, L. (in review) Climate variability, kelp forests, and the southern California red abalone fishery. Submitted toJ. Shellfish Res.

  • Tegner, M.J. (2000) Abalone (Haliotis spp.) enhancement in California: What weve learned and where we go from here. Canadian Special Publications in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (in press).

  • Tegner, M.J., Basch, L.V. and Dayton, P.K. (1996) Near-extinction of an exploited marine invertebrate. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11(7), 278–280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tegner, M.J., Breen, P.A. and Lennert, C.E. (1989) Population biology of red abalones, Haliotis rufescens, in southern California [USA] and management of the red and pink, Haliotis corrugata, abalone fisheries. Fish. Bull. 87(2), 313–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tegner, M.J. and Butler, R.A. (1985a) The survival and mortality of seeded and native red abalones, Haliotis rufescens, on the Palos Verdes Peninsula [California, USA]. Cal. Fish Game. 71(3), 160–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tegner, M.J. and Butler, R.A. (1985b) Drift-tube study of the dispersal potential of green abalone (Haliotis fulgens) larvae in the southern California Bight: Implications for recovery of depleted populations. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 26, 73–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tegner, M.J. and Butler, R.A. (1989) Abalone seeding. In: Hahn, K. (ed.), Handbook of Culture of Abalone and Other Gastropods. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 157–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tegner, M.J. and Dayton, P.K. (1977) Sea urchin recruitment patterns and implications of commercial fishing. Science 196, 324–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tegner, M.J. and Dayton, P.K. (1987) El Niñ o effects on Southern California kelp communities. Adv. Ecol. Res. 17, 243–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tegner, M.J. and Dayton, P.K. (1991) Sea urchins, El Niñ os, and the long term stability of Southern California kelp forest communities. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 77, 49–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tegner, M.J. and Levin, L.A. (1982) Do sea urchins and abalones compete in California kelp forest communities? In: Lawrence, J.M. (ed.), International Echinoderm Conference. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorson, G. (1950) Reproduction and larval ecology of marine bottom invertebrates. Biol. Rev. 25, 1–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tutschulte, T.C. (1976) The comparative ecology of three sympatric abalone. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California, San Diego.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tutschulte, T.C. and Connell, J.H. (1981) Reproductive biology of three species of abalones (Haliotis) in southern California [USA]. Veliger 23(3), 195–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valentine, J.W. and Jablonski, D. Mass extinctions: Sensitivity of marine larval types. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83, 6912- 6914.

  • Wallace, S.S. (1999) Evaluating the effects of the three forms of marine reserves on northern abalone populations in British Columbia, Canada. Cons. Biol. 13, 882–887.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wells, S.M. (1997) Giant clams: Status, trade and mariculture, and the role of CITES in management. World Conservation Union.International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Communications Division, Gland, Switzerland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wendell, F. (1994) Relationship between sea otter range expansion and red abalone abundance and size distribution in central California. Cal. Fish Game Bull. 80(2), 45–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wing, S.R., Largier, J.L., Botsford, L.W. and Quinn, J.F. (1995) Settlement and transport of benthic invertebrates in an intermittent upwelling region. Limnol. Oceanog. 40(2), 316–329.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hobday, A.J., Tegner, M.J. & Haaker, P.L. Over-exploitation of a broadcast spawning marine invertebrate: Decline of the white abalone. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 10, 493–514 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012274101311

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012274101311

Navigation