Skip to main content
Log in

The Impact of Gender and Setting on Perceptions of Others' Ethics

  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In this article we explore how differences in gender and setting affect individuals' perceptions of others' ethics. We examine 4 hypotheses: first, that men would be perceived as more utilitarian in their ethics and women would be perceived as more formalist; second, individuals would be perceived to be more utilitarian in work settings than in nonwork settings; third, women would be more accurate in their perceptions of others' ethics; fourth, both men and women would be more accurate in their perceptions of women's ethics. Results strongly support the first, refute the second, modestly support the third, and support the fourth. Overall, the data suggest that men and women share very similar perceptions of own-gender and other-gender ethics. However, these shared perceptions are often quite inaccurate.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alvesson, M., & Due Billing, Y. (1997). Understanding gender and organizations. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ambrose, M. L., & Schminke, M. (1999). Sex differences in business ethics: The importance of perceptions. Journal of Managerial Issues, 11, 454-474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ameen, E. C., Guffey, D. M., & McMillan, J. J. (1996). Gender differences in determining the ethical sensitivity of future accounting professionals. Journal of Business Ethics, 15, 591-597.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, L. R., & Blanchard, P. N. (1982). Sex differences in task and social-emotional behavior. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 3, 109-139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arlow, P. (1991). Personal characteristics in college students' evaluations of business ethics and corporate social responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 10, 63-69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arlow, P., & Ulrich, T. A. (1988). A longitudinal survey of business school graduates' assessments of business ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 7, 295-302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berger, J., Fisek, M. H., Norman, R. Z., & Zelditch, M., Jr. (1977). Status characteristics and social interactions: An expectation states approach. New York: Elsevier Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blasi, A. (1980). Bridging moral cognition and moral action: A critical review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 1-45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bond, J. R., & Vinacke, W. B. (1961). Coalitions in mixed-sex triads. Sociometry, 24, 61-75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brady, F. N. (1985). A Janus-headed model of ethical theory: Looking two ways at business/society issues. Academy of Management Review, 10, 568-576.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brady, F. N. (1990). Ethical managing. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brady, F. N., & Wheeler, G. E. (1996). An empirical study of ethical predispositions. Journal of Business Ethics, 15, 927-940.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brenner, S. N., & Molander, E. A. (1977). Is the ethics of business changing? Harvard Business Review, 55, 57-71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buttner, E. H. (2001). Examining female entrepreneurs' management style: An application of a relational frame. Journal of Business Ethics, 29, 253-269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carli, L. L., & Eagly, A. H. (1999). Gender effects on social influence and emergent leadership. In G. N. Powell (Ed.), Handbook of gender and work (pp. 203-222). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. R., Pant, L. W., & Sharp, D. J. (1998). The effect of gender and academic discipline diversity on the ethical evaluations, ethical intentions, and ethical orientation of potential public accounting recruits. Accounting Horizons, 12, 250-270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, L. M. (1997). Ethical differences between men and women in the sales world. Journal of Business Ethics, 16, 1143-1152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dearborn, D. C., & Simon, H. A. (1958). Selective perception: A note on the departmental identifications of executives. Sociometry, 21, 140-144.

    Google Scholar 

  • DePaulo, B. M., Stone, J. I., & Lassiter, G. D. (1985). Telling ingratiating lies: Effects of target sex and target attractiveness on verbal and nonverbal deceptive success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1191-1203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Donnell, S. M., & Hall, J. (1980). Men and women as managers: A significant case of no significant difference. Organizational Dynamics, 8, 60-77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (1991). Gender and the emergence of leaders: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 685-710.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elm, D. R., & Nichols, M. L. (1993). An investigation of the moral reasoning of managers. Journal of Business Ethics, 12, 817-833.

    Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.

    Google Scholar 

  • FirstSearch. (2002). FirstSearch online databases. OCLC (Online Computer Library Center), Inc. Available from http://www.ref.oclc.org; fscat.oclc.org

  • Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1984). Social cognition. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, J. (1998). Relational practice: A feminist reconstruction of work. Journal of Management Inquiry, 7, 163-186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, R. C., & Richardson, W. D. (1994). Ethical decision making: A review of the literature. Journal of Business Ethics, 13, 205-221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forsyth, D. R. (1980). A taxonomy of ethical ideologies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 175-184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraedrich, J. P. (1988). Philosophy type interactions in the ethical decision making process of retailers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M University.

  • Franke, G. R., Crown, D. F., & Spake, D. F. (1997). Gender differences in ethical perceptions of business practices: A social role theory perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 920-934.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, S. J. M., & Giebink, J. W. (1979). Moral judgment as a function of age, sex, and stimulus. Journal of Psychology, 102, 43-47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. A. (1984). Nonverbal sex differences: Communication accuracy and expressive styles. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halpern, D. F. (1992). Sex differences in cognitive abilities. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heilman, M. E., Block, C. J., Martell, F. F., & Simon, M. C. (1989). Has anything changed? Current characterizations of men, women, and managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 935-942.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogan, R. (1970). A dimension of moral judgment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 35, 205-212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackall, R. (1988). Moral mazes. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, D., & Drakich, J. (1993). Understanding gender differences in amount of talk: A critical review of research. In D. Tannen (Ed.), Gender and conversational interaction (pp. 281-312). London: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, G. E., & Kavanagh, M. J. (1996). An empirical examination of the effects of individual and situational factors on unethical behavioral intentions in the workplace. Journal of Business Ethics, 15, 511-523.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg, L. (1981). The philosophy of moral development. San Francisco: Harper and Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg, L. (1984). The psychology of moral development. San Francisco: Harper and Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg, L., & Kramer, R. (1969). Continuities and discontinuities in childhood and adult moral development. Human Development, 12, 93-120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M. (1991). Gender, group composition, and peer interaction in computer-based cooperative learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 9, 549-577.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lefkowitz, J. (1994). Sex-related differences in job attitudes and dispositional variables: Now you see them... Academy of Management Journal, 37, 323-349.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, K. (1936). Principles of topological psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loden, M. (1985). Feminine leadership. New York: Times Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, J. (1993). Organizational communication from a feminist perspective. Communication Yearbook, 16, 122-143.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNichols, C. W., & Zimmerer, T. W. (1985). Situational ethics: An empirical study of differentiators of student attitudes. Journal of Business Ethics, 4, 175-180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. B. (1976). Toward a new psychology of women. Boston: Beacon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. B. (1987). Toward a new psychology of women (2nd ed.). Boston: Beacon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. B., & Stiver, I. P. (1997). The healing connection. Boston: Beacon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nozick, R. (1981). Philosophical explanations. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunnally, J. (1967). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pedhazur, E. J., & Schmelkin, L. P. (1991). Measurement, design, and analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, G. N. (1993). Women and men in management. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Randall, D. M., & Fernandes, M. F. (1991). The social desirability response bias in ethics research. Journal of Business Ethics, 10, 805-817.

    Google Scholar 

  • Randall, D. M., & Gibson, A. M. (1990). Methodology in business ethics research: A review and critical assessment. Journal of Business Ethics, 9, 457-472.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reidenbach, R. E., & Robin, D. P. (1988). Some initial steps toward improving the measurement of ethical evaluations of marketing activities. Journal of Business Ethics, 7, 871-879.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reidenbach, R. E., & Robin, D. P. (1990). Toward the development of a multidimensional scale for improving evaluations of business ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 9, 639-653.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rest, J. R. (1986). Moral development: Advances in theory and research. New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rest, J. R., & Deemer, D. (1986). Life experiences and developmental pathways. In J. R. Rest (Ed.), Moral development: Advances in theory and research (pp. 28-58). New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ridgeway, C. L., & Diekema, D. (1992). Are gender differences status differences? In C. L. Ridgeway (Ed.), Gender, interaction, and equality (pp. 157-180). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robin, D., & Babin, L. (1997). Making sense of the research on gender and ethics in business: A critical analysis and extension. Business Ethics Quarterly, 7, 61-90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosener, J. B. (1990). Ways women lead. Harvard Business Review, 68, 119-120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R., & DePaulo, B. (1979). Sex differences in accommodation. In R. Rosenthal (Ed.), Skill in nonverbal communication: Individual differences (pp. 68-103). Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Gunn, & Hain.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schein, V. A. (1973). The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 57, 95-100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schein, V. A. (1975). Relationships between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics among female managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 340-344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schminke, M. (1997). Gender differences in ethical frameworks and evaluation of others' choices in ethical dilemmas. Journal of Business Ethics, 16, 55-65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schminke, M. (2001). Considering the business in business ethics: An exploratory study of the influence of organizational size and structure on individual ethical predispositions. Journal of Business Ethics, 30, 375-390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schminke, M., & Ambrose, M. L. (1997). Asymmetric perceptions of ethical frameworks of men and women in business and nonbusiness settings. Journal of Business Ethics, 16, 719-729.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schminke, M., Ambrose, M. L., & Noel, T. W. (1997). The effect of ethical frameworks on perceptions of organizational justice. Academy of Management Journal, 40, 1190-1207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schminke, M., & Wells, D. (1999). Group processes and performance and their effects on individuals' ethical frameworks. Journal of Business Ethics, 18, 367-381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schuler, R. (1975). Sex, organizational level, and outcome importance. Personnel Psychology, 28, 365-375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singhapakdi, A. (1999). Perceived importance of ethics and ethical decisions in marketing. Journal of Business Research, 45, 89-99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanga, K. G., & Turpen, R. A. (1991). Ethical judgments on selected accounting issues: An empirical study. Journal of Business Ethics, 10, 739-747.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swim, J. K. (1994). Perceived versus meta-analytic effect sizes: An assessment of the accuracy of gender stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 21-36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., & Fiske, S. T. (1978). Salience, attention, and attribution: Top of the head phenomena. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 249-288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thoma, S. J. (1986). Estimating gender differences in the comprehension and preference of moral issues. Developmental Review, 6, 165-180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tolbert, P. S., Graham, M. E., & Andrews, A. O. (1999). Group gender composition and work group relations. In G. N. Powell (Ed.), Handbook of gender and work (pp. 179-202). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Treviño, L. K. (1986). Ethical decision making in organizations: A person-situation interactionist model. Academy of Management Review, 11, 601-617.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsalikis, J., & Fritzsche, D. J. (1989). Business ethics: A literature review with a focus on marketing ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 8, 695-744.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyson, T. (1990). Believing that everyone else is less ethical: Implications for work behavior and ethics instruction. Journal of Business Ethics, 9, 715-721.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyson, T. (1992). Does believing that everyone else is less ethical have an impact on work behavior? Journal of Business Ethics, 11, 707-717.

    Google Scholar 

  • Velasquez, M. G. (1992). Business ethics: Concepts and cases. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Victor, B., & Cullen, J. B. (1988). The organizational bases of ethical work climates. Administrative Science Quarterly, 33, 101-125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vinacke, W. B. (1959). Sex roles in a three-person game. Sociometry, 22, 343-360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, D. G., & Berger, J. B. (1997). Gender and interpersonal task behaviors: Status expectation accounts. Sociological Perspectives, 40, 1-32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, J. P. (1988). Selectivity and selective perception: An investigation of managers' belief structure and information processing. Academy of Management Journal, 31, 873-896.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber, J. (1990). Managers' moral reasoning: Assessing their responses to three moral dilemmas. Human Relations, 43, 687-702.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber, J. (1991). Adapting Kohlberg to enhance the assessment of managers' moral reasoning. Business Ethics Quarterly, 1, 293-310.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, J. (1992). Business, ethics, and Carol Gilligan's "two voices." Business Ethics Quarterly, 2, 51-61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1990). Measuring sex stereotypes: A multinational study. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, W. (1987). Meta-analytic review of sex differences in group performance. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 53-71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, J. A., Longnecker, J. G., McKinney, J. A., & Moore, C. W. (1988). Ethical attitudes of students and business professionals: A study of moral reasoning. Journal of Business Ethics, 7, 249-257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zey-Ferrell, M. K., & Ferrell, O. C. (1982). Role set configuration and opportunity as predictors of unethical behavior in organizations. Human Relations, 35, 587-604.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerman, M., DePaulo, B. M., & Rosenthal, R. (1981). Verbal and nonverbal communication of deception. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 1-59.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marshall Schminke.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Schminke, M., Ambrose, M.L. & Miles, J.A. The Impact of Gender and Setting on Perceptions of Others' Ethics. Sex Roles 48, 361–375 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022994631566

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022994631566

Navigation