Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-t5pn6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-15T14:27:03.666Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

MEDICAL AUXILIARIES AND THE NEGOTIATION OF PUBLIC HEALTH IN COLONIAL NORTH-WESTERN TANZANIA*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2013

Mari Webel
Mari Webel*
Affiliation:
Emory University
*
Author's email: mari.webel@emory.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article investigates the development and employment of African medical auxiliaries during the German campaign against sleeping sickness in colonial north-western Tanzania. A case study from the kingdom of Kiziba demonstrates how widespread illness and colonial public health interventions intersected with broader political and social change in the early twentieth century. Ziba auxiliaries known as gland-feelers operated within overlapping social and occupational contexts as colonial intermediaries, royal emissaries, and familiar local men. The changing fortunes of the campaign and its auxiliaries illustrate how new public health interventions became a means for the kingdom's population to engage with or avoid both royal and colonial power.

Keywords

Colonial intermediariesdiseasehealthmedicineTanzania
Type
Colonial Medicine and Disease Management
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 54 , Issue 3 , November 2013 , pp. 393 - 416
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Research for this article was funded by the CLIR-Mellon Dissertation Fellowship in the Humanities, the SSRC-International Dissertation Research Fellowship, the Free University-Berlin Program for Advanced German and European Studies Dissertation Fellowship, and Columbia University. An earlier version was presented at the African Studies Association Annual Meeting in New Orleans in 2009. It has benefited from the insights of participants in Emory University's Institute of African Studies Research Seminar, the University of Basel's 2011 conference on the history of health care in Africa, and the ISERP/Mellon Graduate Fellows Workshop at Columbia University. My thanks to Elpidius Rwegoshora for his assistance in Bukoba and to Clifton Crais, Melissa Graboyes, Julie Livingston, Joshua Kobrin, Gregory Mann, Kristin Phillips, Tom Rogers, Nancy Rose Hunt, Jenn Tappan, and Julie Weiskopf, and the reviewers of this journal for their comments and suggestions.

References

1 ‘Haya’ refers to an ethno-cultural and linguistic group in north-western Tanzania, of which Buhaya is the territory and Ruhaya is the language. For a discussion of changing ‘Haya’ identity, see Curtis, K., ‘Neo-traditionalism in colonial Buhaya: a public debate’, in Harms, R. W., Miller, J. C., Newbury, D. S., and Wagner, M. D. (eds.), Paths Toward the Past: African Historical Essays in Honor of Jan Vansina (Atlanta, 1994), 157–75Google Scholar.

2 See, for example, Curtin, P. D., ‘Medical knowledge and urban planning in tropical Africa’, American Historical Review, 90:3 (1985), 594–613CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Echenberg, M. J., Black Death, White Medicine: Bubonic Plague and the Politics of Public Health in Colonial Senegal, 1914–1945 (Portsmouth, NH, 2002)Google Scholar; Vaughan, M., Curing their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Stanford, CA, 1991)Google Scholar; Webb, J. L. A. Jr, Humanity's Burden: A Global History of Malaria (Cambridge, 2009)Google Scholar.

3 Lyons, M., The Colonial Disease: A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940 (Cambridge, 1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lyons, M., ‘Sleeping sickness, colonial medicine and imperialism: some connections in the Belgian Congo’, in Macleod, R. M. and Lewis, M. J. (eds.), Disease, Medicine, and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion (London, 1988), 242–56Google Scholar; Lyons, M., ‘The power to heal: African auxiliaries in colonial Belgian Congo and Uganda’, in Engels, D. and Marks, S. (eds.), Contesting Colonial Hegemony: State and Society in Africa and India (London, 1994), 203–23Google Scholar; Hoppe, K. A., Lords of the Fly: Sleeping Sickness Control in British East Africa, 1900–1960 (Westport, CT, 2003)Google Scholar; Headrick, R. and Headrick, D. R., Colonialism, Health and Illness in French Equatorial Africa, 1885–1935 (Atlanta, 1994)Google Scholar; Giblin, J. L., ‘Trypanosomiasis control in African history: an evaded issue?’, The Journal of African History, 31:1 (1990), 59–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hunt, N. R., A Colonial Lexicon of Birth Ritual, Medicalization, and Mobility in the Congo (Durham, NC, 1999), 92–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Musambachime, M. C., ‘The social and economic effects of sleeping sickness in Mweru-Luapula 1906–1922’, African Economic History, 10 (1981), 151–73CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

4 Berger, I., Religion and Resistance: East African Kingdoms in the Precolonial Period (Tervuren, 1981)Google Scholar; Chrétien, J.-P., The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History (New York, 2003)Google Scholar; Hanson, H. E., Landed Obligation: The Practice of Power in Buganda (Portsmouth, NH, 2003)Google Scholar; Kodesh, N., Beyond the Royal Gaze: Clanship and Public Healing in Buganda (Charlottesville, VA, 2010)Google Scholar; Reid, R., Political Power in Pre-Colonial Buganda: Economy, Society, and Warfare in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 2002)Google Scholar; Schoenbrun, D. L., A Green Place, A Good Place: Agrarian Change, Gender, and Social Identity in the Great Lakes Region to the 15th Century (Portsmouth, NH, 1998)Google Scholar; Schoenbrun, D. L., ‘Conjuring the modern in Africa: durability and rupture in histories of public healing between the great lakes of East Africa’, American Historical Review, 111:5 (2006), 1403–39CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Wrigley, C., Kingship and State: The Buganda Dynasty (Cambridge, 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 Weiss, B., Sacred Trees, Bitter Harvests: Globalizing Coffee in Northwest Tanzania (Portsmouth, NH, 2003)Google Scholar; Weiss, B., The Making and Unmaking of the Haya Lived World: Consumption, Commoditization, and Everyday Practice (Durham, NC, 1996)Google Scholar; K. R. Curtis, ‘Capitalism fettered: state, merchant, and peasant in northwestern Tanzania, 1917–1960’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1989); Austen, R. A., Northwest Tanzania under German and British Rule: Colonial Policy and Tribal Politics, 1889–1939 (New Haven, CT, 1968)Google Scholar; Larsson, B., Conversion to Greater Freedom? Women, Church and Social Change in North-western Tanzania under Colonial Rule (Stockholm, 1991)Google Scholar; Iliffe, J., A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Iliffe, J., Tanganyika under German rule, 1905–1912 (Cambridge, 1969)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; M. P. Kilaini, ‘The Catholic evangelization of Kagera in north-west Tanzania: the pioneer period, 1892–1912’ (unpublished PhD thesis, Pontifical Gregorian University, 1990); Lwamgira, F. X., Amakuru ga Kiziba: The History of Kiziba and its Kings, trans. E. R. Kamuhangire (Kampala, 1969)Google Scholar; Reining, P., ‘Haya land tenure: landholding and tenancy’, Anthropological Quarterly, 35:2 (1962), 58–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schmidt, P. R., Historical Archaeology: A Structural Approach in an African Culture (Westport, CT, 1978)Google Scholar.

6 Arnold, D., ‘Introduction: disease, medicine and empire’, in Arnold, D. (ed.), Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester, 1988), 1–26Google Scholar.

7 Eckart, W. U., Medizin und Kolonialimperialismus: Deutschland 1884–1945 (München, 1997), 348Google Scholar; Iliffe, J., East African Doctors: A History of the Modern Profession (Cambridge, 1998), 31–2Google Scholar; Isobe, H., Medizin und Kolonialgesellschaft: die Bekämpfung der Schlafkrankheit in den deutschen “Schutzgebieten” vor dem Ersten Weltkrieg, Periplus Studien (Berlin, 2009), 115Google Scholar.

8 Fabian, J., Out of Our Minds: Reason and Madness in the Exploration of Central Africa (Berkeley, CA, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hokkanen, M., ‘Towards a cultural history of medicine(s) in colonial Central Africa’, in Digby, A., Ernst, W., and Mukharji, P. B. (eds.), Crossing Colonial Historiographies: Histories of Colonial and Indigenous Medicines in Transnational Perspective (Newcastle upon Tyne, 2010), 143–64Google Scholar; Hunt, Colonial Lexicon; Lawrance, B. N., Osborn, E. L., and Roberts, R. L. (eds.), Intermediaries, Interpreters, and Clerks: African Employees in the Making of Colonial Africa (Madison, WI, 2006)Google Scholar; Osborn, E. L., ‘“Circle of iron”: African colonial employees and the interpretation of colonial rule in French West Africa’, The Journal of African History, 44:1 (2003), 29–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rockel, S. J., Carriers of Culture: Labor on the Road in Nineteenth-Century East Africa (Portsmouth, NH, 2006)Google Scholar.

9 Jacobs, N. J., ‘The intimate politics of ornithology in colonial Africa’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 48:3 (2006), 564–603CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schumaker, L., Africanizing Anthropology: Fieldwork, Networks, and the Making of Cultural Knowledge in Central Africa (Durham, NC, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Marks, S., Divided Sisterhood: Race, Class, and Gender in the South African Nursing Profession (New York, 1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Iliffe, East African Doctors; Hunt, N. R., ‘Letter writing, nursing men and bicycles in the Belgian Congo: notes towards the social identity of a colonial category’, in Harms, , Miller, , Newbury, , Wagner, (eds.), Paths, 187–210Google Scholar; Hunt, Colonial Lexicon; Turritin, J., ‘Colonial midwives and modernizing childbirth in French West Africa’, in Allman, J. M., Geiger, S., and Musisi, N. (eds.), Women in African Colonial Histories (Bloomington, IN, 2002), 71–94Google Scholar.

11 Sleeping sickness, also known as human African trypanosomiasis, is caused by a parasitic infection spread by the tsetse fly; it ultimately affects the central nervous system and is considered fatal when left untreated. Related parasites also affect cattle and domestic livestock. Burri, C. and Brun, R., ‘Human African trypanosomiasis’, in Cook, G. C. and Zumla, A. (eds.), Manson's Tropical Diseases (London, 2003), 1303–23Google Scholar.

12 Ford, J., The Role of the Trypanosomiases in African Ecology: A Study of the Tsetse Fly Problem (Oxford, 1971)Google Scholar; Giblin, J. L., The Politics of Environmental Control in Northeastern Tanzania, 184–1940 (Philadelphia, 1992)Google Scholar; Iliffe, Modern History, ch. 5; Kjekshus, H., Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History: The Case of Tanganyika, 1850–1950 (Athens, OH, 1996)Google Scholar; Endfield, G. H., Ryves, D. B., Mills, K., Berrang-Ford, L., ‘“The gloomy forebodings of this dread disease”, climate, famine and sleeping sickness in East Africa’, The Geographical Journal, 175:3 (2009), 181–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Malowany, M., ‘Unfinished agendas: writing the history of medicine of sub-Saharan Africa’, African Affairs, 99:395 (2000), 330–5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

13 Lyons, Colonial Disease; Headrick, Colonialism, Health and Illness; Hoppe, Lords of the Fly.

14 Steverding, D., ‘The history of African trypanosomiasis’, Parasites & Vectors 1:3 (2008), doi:10.1186/1756-3305-1-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Fèvre, E. M., Coleman, P. G., Welburn, S. C., and Maudlin, I., ‘Reanalyzing the 1900–1920 sleeping sickness epidemic in Uganda’, Emerging Infectious Diseases, 10:3 (2004), 567–73CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

15 Lyons, M., ‘African Trypanosomiasis’, in Kiple, K. F. (ed.), Cambridge World History of Human Disease (Cambridge, 1993), 552–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar, esp. 556 ; Lyons, Colonial Disease.

16 Lyons, ‘African Trypanosomiasis’, 556; Hoppe, Lords of the Fly, 27; Malowany, ‘Unfinished agendas’, 331.

17 Lyons, ‘Sleeping sickness’, 245; Koponen, J., Development for Exploitation: German Colonial Policies in Mainland Tanzania, 1884–1914 (Hamburg, 1994), 245Google Scholar.

18 Neill, D. J., Networks in Tropical Medicine: Internationalism, Colonialism, and the Rise of a Medical Specialty, 1890–1930 (Stanford, CA, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lyons, ‘African Trypanosomiasis’.

19 Worboys, M., ‘The comparative history of sleeping sickness in East and Central Africa’, History of Science, 32:95 (1994), 89–102CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hoppe, Lords of the Fly; W. Eckart, Medizin und Kolonialimperialismus.

20 Bundesarchiv, Berlin Lichterfelde (BArch) R 1001/5896, R. Koch, Report, 5 Sep. 1907.

21 BArch R 1001/5897, Bethmann-Hollweg to Kaiser Wilhelm II, Summary Report, 23 Jan. 1908.

22 BArch R 1001/5876, Meeting Minutes, 18 Nov. 1907, 10.

23 See also M. Webel, ‘Borderlands of research: medicine, empire, and sleeping sickness in East Africa, 1902–1914’ (unpublished PhD thesis, Columbia University, 2012).

24 Burri and Brun, ‘Human African Trypanosomiasis’, 1317.

25 Berger, Religion and Resistance; Schoenbrun, ‘Conjuring the modern’.

26 Weiss, Haya Lived World, 22.

27 Ibid. 16; Kodesh, Royal Gaze; Iliffe, Modern History, 30–1; Berger, Religion and Resistance; Schoenbrun, D., ‘A mask of calm: emotion and founding the kingdom of Bunyoro in the sixteenth century’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 55:3 (2013), 634–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 Nolan, F., Mission to the Great Lakes: The White Fathers in Western Tanzania, 1878–1978 (Tabora, Tanzania, 1978), 24Google Scholar.

29 Kodesh, Royal Gaze.

30 BArch R 1001/5897, F. K. Kleine, ‘Schlafkrankheit’, 31 Mar. 1908.

31 Lwamgira, History, 137; Isobe, ‘Medizin und Kolonialgesellschaft’; BArch R 1001/5897, R. Kudicke, Report, 13 May 1908, 3.

32 Schoenbrun, Green Place, 166.

33 H. Rehse, Kiziba: Land und Leute (Stuttgart, 1910), 2.

34 Ibid. 1–3.

35 BArch R 86/2622, R. Kudicke, Report, 1 Oct. 1907.

36 BArch R 1001/5876, Reichsgesundheitsamt, Report, 28 Dec. 1908; BArch R 1001/5876, E. Steudel, Report, 4 Nov. 1908; BArch R 1001/5898, Gudowius, Report, 31 May 1908; BArch R 1001/5903, G. Ullrich, Report, 31 Dec. 1909, 5.

37 BArch R 1001/5903, G. Ullrich, Report, 31 Dec. 1909, 5.

38 Iliffe, Tanganyika under German Rule, 160; Austen, Northwest Tanzania, 54 and 91.

39 BArch R 1001/5904, G. Ullrich, Report, 16 Apr. 1910.

40 BArch R 1001/5904, G. Ullrich, Report, 31 Jul. 1910; Eckart, W. U., ‘The colony as laboratory: German sleeping sickness campaigns in German East Africa and Togo, 1900–1914’, History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 24:1 (2002), 69–89CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Gradmann, C., ‘“It seemed about time to try one of those modern medicines”: animal and human experimentation in the chemotherapy of sleeping sickness, 1905–1908’, in Roelcke, V. and Maio, G. (eds.), Twentieth Century Ethics of Human Subjects Research: Historical Perspectives on Values, Practices, and Regulations (Stuttgart, 2004), 83–97Google Scholar.

41 Lyons, ‘Sleeping sickness’, 111; Steverding, D., ‘The development of drugs for treatment of sleeping sickness: a historical review’, Parasites & Vectors, 3(1):15 (2010), doi:10.1186/1756-3305-3-15Google Scholar.

42 BArch R 1001/5895, R. Koch, Draft Report, 15 Oct. 1906; Geheimes Staatsarchiv-Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin (GStA PK), I. HA. Rep. 76 VIII, Nr. 4118, R. Koch, Report, 25 Nov. 1906; BArch R 1001/5896, R. Koch, Draft Report, 25 Apr. 1907.

43 Bethel Mission Archives, Wuppertal (BMArch) M 194, A. Kajarero, ‘Aus meinem Leben’, (1955–6?), 9–10; Interview with Bernard Mutekanga, Kashozi, Tanzania, 19 Aug. 2008; S. Feierman, ‘Struggles for control: the social roots of health and healing in modern Africa’, African Studies Review, 28:2/3 (1985), 73–147; Janzen, J. M., ‘Therapy management: concept, reality, process’, Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 1:1 (1987), 68–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

44 M. Webel, ‘Ziba politics and the German sleeping sickness camp at Kigarama, Tanzania, 1907–14’, International Journal of African Historical Studies (forthcoming).

45 Interview with Bernard Mutekanga; see also Hyden, G., Political Development in Rural Tanzania (Nairobi, 1969)Google Scholar ch. 4; Weiss, Sacred Trees.

46 See BArch R 1001/5897, R. Kudicke, Report, 13 May 1908; BArch R 1001/5897, O. Feldmann, Report, 1 Apr. 1908.

47 Belgian authorities in the Congo made a similar shift in 1910. Lyons, Colonial Disease, 125–6.

48 BArch R 1001/5876, E. Steudel, Report 4 Nov. 1908, 3–4.

49 BArch R 1001/5896, R. Kudicke, Report, 1 Oct. 1907.

50 Interview with Bernard Mutekanga.

51 BArch R 1001/5897, R. Kudicke, Report, 31 May 1908, 1.

52 BArch R 1001/5904, Scherschmidt, Report, 4 Jan. 1910; BArch R 1001/5911, Scherschmidt, Report, 1 Jan. 1914; BArch R 1001/5910, Lurz, Report, 1 Jul. 1913; BArch R 1001/5911, Lurz, Report, 1 Oct. 1913.

53 BArch R 1001/5901, R. Kudicke, Chart, 9 Aug. 1908.

54 Schoenbrun, Green Place, 213 n76 and 222–3; Anderson, D. M., ‘Cow power: livestock and the pastoralist in Africa’, African Affairs, 92:366 (1993), 121–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

55 Austen, Northwest Tanzania, 10; Reining, ‘Haya land tenure’; Weiss, Sacred Trees, 35.

56 Schmidt, Historical Archaeology, 101; Rehse, Kiziba, 1.

57 Schmidt, Historical Archaeology, 29–30; Cory, H. and Hartnoll, M. M., Customary Law of the Haya Tribe, Tanganyika Territory (London, 1945), 125Google Scholar and 261–2; Cory, H., Historia ya Wilaya Bukoba (Mwanza, 1956)Google Scholar; Rehse, Kiziba, 54.

58 Weiss, Sacred Trees, 111; Cory and Hartnoll, Customary Law, 123–6.

59 Cory and Hartnoll, Customary Law, 125; Schmidt discusses a similar institution, kikale, in Historical Archaeology, 29.

60 Rehse, Kiziba, 115.

61 Schmidt, Historical Archaeology, 29; Austen, Northwest Tanzania, 11 and 144; Stevens, L., ‘Religious change in a Haya village, Tanzania’, Journal of Religion in Africa, 21:1 (1991), 8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nolan, Mission to the Great Lakes, 21; Hyden, Political Development, 79–82.

62 M. P. Kilaini, ‘Catholic evangelization’, 12–13; Rehse, Kiziba, 110.

63 Schmidt, Historical Archaeology, 29.

64 L. A. Fallers with Musoke, S. B. K., ‘Social mobility, traditional and modern’, in Fallers, L. A. (ed.), The King's Men: Leadership and Status in Buganda on the Eve of Independence (Oxford, 1964), 170–71Google Scholar; Reid, R., ‘The Ganda on Lake Victoria: a nineteenth-century East African imperialism’, The Journal of African History, 39:3 (1998), 349–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65 Cory and Hartnoll, Customary Law, 271.

66 BArch R 1001/1029, Haber, Report, 30 Jun. 1904, 6; Iliffe, Tanganyika under German Rule, 174; Iliffe, Modern History, 122.

67 BArch R 1001/5897, O. Feldmann, 1 Apr. 1908; BArch R 1001/5910, Governor Schnee to Dar es Salaam, 24 Jan. 1913, incl. Sacher, 19 Oct. 1912 and Penschke, 6 Nov. 1912.

68 Lwamgira, History, 137–8.

69 Weiss, B., ‘Dressing at death: clothing, time, and memory in Buhaya, Tanzania’, in Hendrickson, H. (ed.), Clothing and Difference: Embodied Identities in Colonial and Post-colonial Africa (Durham, NC, 1996), 133–54Google Scholar.

70 Hunt, Colonial Lexicon.

71 BArch R 1001/5898, Gudowius, Report, 31 May 1908, 59–60.

72 M. Moyd, ‘Becoming askari: African soldiers and everyday colonialism in German East Africa, 1850–1918’ (unpublished PhD thesis, Cornell University, 2008).

73 BArch R 1001/5899, R. Kudicke, Report, 18 Dec. 1908, 1.

74 Lyons, Colonial Disease, 199–206; Headrick, Colonialism, Health and Illness, 89–91.

75 BArch R 1001/5898, R. Kudicke, ‘Bericht über die Bekämpfung der Schlafkrankheit im Bezirk Bukoba 1. Mai bis 31. Juli 1908’, undated 1908, 1.

76 Amsterdamska, O., ‘Demarcating epidemiology’, Science, Technology & Human Values, 30:1 (2005), 17–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Worboys, M., ‘Tropical diseases’, in Bynum, W. F. and Porter, R. (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia to the History of Medicine, Volume I, Art and Science of Medicine, (London, 1993), 527Google Scholar; Worboys, M., ‘The emergence of tropical medicine: a study in the establishment of a scientific specialty’, in Lemaine, G., Macleod, R., Mulkay, M. J., and Weingart, P. (eds.), Perspectives on the Emergence of Scientific Disciplines (Chicago, 1976), 75–98Google Scholar.

77 BArch R 1001/5898, R. Kudicke, ‘Bericht …’, undated 1908, 3.

78 BArch R 1001/5899, R. Kudicke, Report, 18 Dec. 1908, 4.

79 BArch R 1001/5901, G. Ullrich, Report, 31 Mar. 1909.

80 BArch R 1001/5901, Ruschhaupt, Report, 1 Jul. 1909.

81 Ibid.

82 Ibid.

83 BArch R 1001/5899, R. Kudicke, Report, 18 Dec. 1908, 4.

84 BArch R1001/5901, Ruschhaupt, Report, 1 Jul. 1909, 2; BArch R 1001/5899, Marshall, 7 Jan. 1909.

85 BArch R 1001/5903, G. Ullrich, Report, 1 Jul. 1909.

86 Osborn, ‘Circle of Iron’; Osborn, Lawrance, and Roberts, Intermediaries, Interpreters, and Clerks; Hunt, ‘Letter writing’.

87 Hanson, Landed Obligation, 63–4 regarding tribute and obligation in Buganda.

88 BArch R 1001/5901, G. Ullrich, Report, 31 Mar. 1909.

89 BArch R 1001/5903, G. Ullrich, Report, 1 Jul. 1909.

90 Cory and Hartnoll, Customary Law, 264; Hyden, Political Development, 89; Hanson, Landed Obligation, 61–72.

91 See, for example, J. Giblin, Politics of Environmental Control, ch. 8.

92 BArch R 1001/5898, R. Kudicke, ‘Bericht …, undated 1908, 2.

93 Neill, D., ‘Paul Ehrlich's colonial connections: scientific networks and sleeping sickness drug therapy research, 1900–1914’, Social History of Medicine, 22:1 (2009), 61–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

94 BArch R 1001/5903, G. Ullrich, Report, 1 Jul. 1909; BArch R 1001/5901, G. Ullrich, Report, 31 Mar. 1909.

95 Lwamgira, History, 138.

96 Schoenbrun, ‘Conjuring the modern’.

97 Rehse, Kiziba, 137–9.

98 For a similar situation in Belgian Congo, see Lyons, Colonial Disease, 184–5.

99 BArch R 1001/5905, R. Kudicke, Report, 25 Oct. 1910.

100 Ibid.

101 BArch R 1001/5901, G. Ullrich, Report, 31 Mar. 1909.

102 BArch R 1001/5905, R. Kudicke, Report, 25 Oct. 1910.

103 Ibid.

104 BArch R 1001/5892, E. Steudel, Excerpt from Report, 27 Apr. 1912, 13.

105 BArch R 1001/5909, B. Eckard, Report, 1 Apr. 1912; BArch R 1001/5909, Vorwerk, Report, 4 Jul. 1912; BArch R 1001/5908, B. Eckard, Report, 1 Oct. 1911, 2–3.

106 Rich, J., ‘Searching for success: boys, family aspirations, and opportunities in Gabon, ca. 1900–1940’, Journal of Family History, 35:1 (2010), 9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.