Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-cfpbc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-15T12:12:25.869Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Android Noahs and embryo Arks: ectogenesis in global catastrophe survival and space colonization

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2021

Matthew R. Edwards Open the ORCID record for Matthew R. Edwards [Opens in a new window]
Matthew R. Edwards*
Affiliation:
John P. Robarts Library, 6th Floor, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaM5S 1A5
*
Author for correspondence: Matthew R. Edwards, E-mail: matt.edwards@utoronto.ca
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

To ensure long-term survival of humans and Earth life generally, strategies need to be in place to recolonize Earth after global catastrophes and to colonize exoplanets. In one strategy of space colonization, the physical barriers erected by time and space are circumvented by sending cryopreserved human and animal embryos to exoplanets rather than adult crews. There the embryos would be developed to neonates in artificial uterus (AU) systems. A similar strategy could also be used to repopulate Earth after human extinction events. In this paper, we review the status and future prospects of these embryonic survival strategies. A critical requirement in each scenario is an AU system for complete ectogenesis, i.e. complete development of embryos to neonates outside the natural womb. While such systems do not yet exist, they may soon be developed to afford clinical assistance to infertile women and reproductive choices to prospective parents. In human survival schemes, AU systems would likely first be used to extend conventional survival missions (e.g. subterranean bunkers) by replacing some adult crew members with cryopreserved embryos. For major mass extinctions and all far future events, adult crews would be entirely replaced by embryos and androids. The most advanced missions would feature orbiting embryo spacecraft for Earth recolonization and analogous interstellar spacecraft for colonizing exoplanets. We conclude that an advanced civilization using such an integrated, embryonic approach could eventually colonize distant parts of its home galaxy and potentially the wider universe.

Keywords

Artificial uterusectogenesisembryo cryopreservationglobal catastropheshuman survivalmass extinctionsspace colonization
Type
Review Article
Information
International Journal of Astrobiology , Volume 20 , Issue 2 , April 2021 , pp. 150 - 158
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Avin, S, Wintle, BC, Weitzdörfer, J, Ó hÉigeartaigh, SS, Sutherland, WJ and Rees, MJ (2018) Classifying global catastrophic risks. Futures 102, 20–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baum, SD (2015) The far future argument for confronting catastrophic threats to humanity: practical significance and alternatives. Futures 72, 86–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Billings, L (2019) Colonizing other planets is a bad idea. Futures 102, 44–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bird, SD (2017) Artificial placenta: analysis of recent progress. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology 208, 61–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosch, E, De Vos, M and Humaidan, P (2020) The future of cryopreservation in assisted reproductive technologies. Frontiers in Endocrinology 11, 67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brännström, M (2017) Uterus transplantation and beyond. Journal of Materials Science. Materials in Medicine 28, 70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brännström, M, Johannesson, L, Bokström, H, Kvarnström, N, Mölne, J, Dahm-Kähler, P, Enskog, A, Milenkovic, M, Ekberg, J, Diaz-Garcia, C, Gäbel, M, Hanafy, A, Hagberg, H, Olausson, M and Nilsson, L (2015) Livebirth after uterus transplantation. Lancet (London, England) 385, 607–616.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bulletti, C, Jasonni, VM, Tabanelli, S, Gianaroli, L, Ciotti, PA, Ferraretti, AP and Flamigni, C (1988) Early human pregnancy in vitro utilizing an artificially perfused uterus. Fertility and Sterility 49, 991–996.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bulletti, C, Palagiano, A, Pace, C, Cerni, A, Borini, A and de Ziegler, D (2011) The artificial womb. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1221, 124–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buturovic, Z (2020) Formula feeding can help illuminate long-term consequences of full ectogenesis. Bioethics 34, 331–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caperton, L, Murphey, P, Yamazaki, Y, McMahan, CA, Walter, C, Yanagimachi, R and McCarrey, JR (2007) Assisted reproductive technologies do not alter mutation frequency or spectrum. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 104, 5085–5090.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowl, A, Hunt, J and Hein, AM (2012) Embryo Space Colonisation to overcome the interstellar time distance bottleneck. Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 65, 283–285.Google Scholar
Denkenberger, DC and Blair, RW (2018) Interventions that may prevent or mollify supervolcanic eruptions. Futures 102, 51–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dittrich, R, Maltaris, T, Mueller, A, Dimmler, A, Hoffmann, I, Kiesewetter, F and Beckmann, MW (2006) Successful uterus cryopreservation in an animal model. Hormone and Metabolic Research 38, 141–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dittrich, R, Maltaris, T, Mueller, A, Strahl, O, Hoffmann, I, Beckmann, MW and Oppelt, PG (2010 a) Uterus cryopreservation in the sheep: one step closer to uterus transplantation. In Vivo (Athens, Greece) 24, 629–634.Google ScholarPubMed
Dittrich, R, Beckmann, MW, Mueller, A, Binder, H, Hoffmann, I and Maltaris, T (2010 b) Uterus cryopreservation: maintenance of uterine contractility by the use of different cryoprotocols. Reproduction in Domestic Animals 45, 86–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drake, F (2013) Reflections on the equation. International Journal of Astrobiology 12, 173–176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, MR (2012) Does the Hubble redshift flip photons and gravitons? Astrophysics and Space Science 339, 13–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feulner, G (2009) Climate modelling of mass-extinction events: a review. International Journal of Astrobiology 8, 207–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, BP (2019) Self-preservation should be humankind's first ethical priority and therefore rapid space settlement is necessary. Futures 102, 35–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammond-Browning, N (2018) A new dawn: ectogenesis, future children and reproductive choice. Contemporary Issues in Law 14, 349–373.Google Scholar
Harby, B (2018) Asgardia: The problems in building a space society. BBC Future. Available at https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20180803-asgardia-the-problems-in-building-a-space-society.Google Scholar
Healey, V (2016) The artificial womb: bridging the gap between embryo culture and the incubator. RCSI Student Medical Journal 9, 67–72.Google Scholar
Hein, AM and Baxter, S (2019) Artificial intelligence for interstellar travel. JBIS: Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 72, 125–143. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1811.06526.pdf.Google Scholar
Hein, AM, Pak, M, Pütz, D, Bühler, C and Reiss, P (2012) World ships – architectures & feasibility revisited. JBIS: Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 65, 119–133.Google Scholar
Hein, AM, Smith, C, Marin, C and Staats, K (2020) World ships: feasibility and rationale. Acta Futura 12, 75–104.Google Scholar
Jakosky, BM and Edwards, CS (2018) Inventory of CO2 available for terraforming Mars. Nature Astronomy 2, 634–639.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jebari, K (2015) Existential risks: exploring a robust risk reduction strategy. Science and Engineering Ethics 21, 541–554.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kareiva, P and Carranza, V (2018) Existential risk due to ecosystem collapse: nature strikes back. Futures 102, 39–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kisu, I, Liu, Y, Chen, G, Song, MJ, Chang, CY, Koon, TH, Banno, K and Aoki, D (2019) Current progress in uterus transplantation research in Asia. Journal of Clinical Medicine 8, 245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klee, F (2017) Human expunction. International Journal of Astrobiology 16, 379–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, H, Mele, CA, Alpert, A and Rosenwaks, Z (2001) Tissue engineering of human endometrial cells using a biodegradable polymer. Fertility and Sterility 76, S23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mack, K (2020) The End of Everything (Astrophysically Speaking). Penguin, UK: Allen Lane.Google Scholar
MacKay, K (2020) The ‘tyranny of reproduction’: could ectogenesis further women's liberation? Bioethics 34, 346–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morono, Y, Ito, M, Hoshino, T, Terada, T, Hori, T, Ikehara, M, D'Hondt, S and Inagaki, F (2020) Aerobic microbial life persists in oxic marine sediment as old as 101.5 million years. Nature Communications 11, 3626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nicholson, A and Forgan, D (2013) Slingshot dynamics for self-replicating probes and the effect on exploration timescales. International Journal of Astrobiology 12, 337–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Partridge, EA, Davey, MG, Hornick, MA, McGovern, PE, Mejaddam, AY, Vrecenak, JD, Mesas-Burgos, C, Aliza, OA, Caskey, RC, Weiland, TR, Han, J, Schupper, AJ, Connelly, JT, Dysart, KC, Rychik, J, Hedrick, HL, Peranteau, WH and Flakea, AW (2017) An extra-uterine system to physiologically support the extreme premature lamb. Nature Communications 8, 11512.Google ScholarPubMed
Partridge, EA, Davey, MG and Flake, AW (2018) Development of the artificial womb. Current Stem Cell Reports 4, 69–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quintans, CJ, Donaldson, MJ, Bertolino, MV, Godoy, H and Pasqualini, RS (2002) Birth of a healthy baby after transfer of embryos that were cryopreserved for 8.9 years. Fertility and Sterility 77, 1074–1076.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, G (2005) Will we grow babies outside their mothers’ bodies? Popular Science 72, 74–76.Google Scholar
Rezazadeh Valojerdi, M, Eftekhari-Yazdi, P, Karimian, L, Hassani, F and Movaghar, B (2009) Vitrification versus slow freezing gives excellent survival, post warming embryo morphology and pregnancy outcomes for human cleaved embryos. Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics 26, 347–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riggs, R, Mayer, J, Dowling-Lacey, D, Chi, T, Jones, E and Oehninger, S (2010) Does storage time influence postthaw survival and pregnancy outcome? An analysis of 11,768 cryopreserved human embryos. Fertility and Sterility 93, 109–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosen, C (2003) Why not artificial wombs? The New Atlantis, Fall 2003, 67–76.Google Scholar
Schölch, D, Schölch, S, Strahl, O, Hoffmann, I, Beckmann, MW and Dittrich, R (2012) Porcine uterus cryopreservation: an analysis of contractile function using different uterotonics. Cryobiology 65, 88–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schultz, JH (2010) Development of ectogenesis: how will artificial wombs affect the legal status of a fetus or embryo? Chicago-Kent Law Review 84, 877–906.Google Scholar
Simopoulou, M, Sfakianoudis, K, Tsioulou, P, Rapani, A, Giannelou, P, Kiriakopoulos, N, Pantou, A, Vlahos, N, Anifandis, G, Bolaris, S, Pantos, K and Koutsilieris, M (2019) What will the future hold for artificial organs in the service of assisted reproduction: prospects and considerations. Frontiers of Medicine 13, 627–638.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, KC, Abney, K, Anderson, G, Billings, L, Devito, CL, Green, BP, Johnson, AR, Marino, L, Munevar, G, Oman-Reagan, MP, Potthast, A, Schwartz, JSJ, Tachibana, K, Traphagan, JW and Wells-Jensen, S (2019) The great colonization debate. Futures 102, 4–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suganuma, N, Hayashi, A, Kisu, I, Banno, K, Hara, H and Mihara, M (2017) Uterus transplantation: toward clinical application in Japan. Reproductive Medicine and Biology 16, 305–313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turchin, A and Denkenberger, D (2018) Global catastrophic and existential risks communication scale. Futures 102, 27–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Usuda, H, Watanabe, S, Saito, M et al. (2019). Successful use of an artificial placenta to support extremely preterm ovine fetuses at the border of viability. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 221, 69.e1–69.e17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wakayama, S, Kamada, Y, Yamanaka, K, et al. (2017) Healthy offspring from freeze-dried mouse spermatozoa held on the International Space Station for 9 months. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 114, 5988–5993.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walkden, G and Parker, J (2008) The biotic effects of large bolide impacts: size versus time and place. International Journal of Astrobiology 7, 209–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, X, Dai, B, Duan, E and Chen, D (2001) Advances in interspecific pregnancy. Chinese Science Bulletin 46, 1772–1778.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward, PD (2007) Mass extinctions. In Sullivan, WT III and Baross, JA (eds). Planets and Life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 335–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wignall, PB (2005) Volcanism and mass extinctions. In Martí, J and Ernst, GGJ (eds). Volcanoes and the Environment. Cambridge University Press, pp. 207–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, J and Oman-Reagan, M (2018) Visions of human futures in space and SETI. International Journal of Astrobiology 17, 177–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, S (2017) A woman gave birth from an embryo frozen for 24 years. The Atlantic. Available at https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/12/frozen-embryo-ivf-24-years/548876Google Scholar