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Private Lending in an Alpine Region during the Eighteenth Century: A Family of Merchant-Bankers and Their Credit Network
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 April 2022
Abstract
The literature on early modern credit markets emphasizes both the social embeddedness of credit relationships and the role of notaries. To enhance our understanding of how credit markets functioned in a “less-developed” economy, we investigate the local lending activities of a merchant-banker family that operated at the intersection of formal and informal credit. A combination of economic rationality and social motivations in lending decisions emerges. The credit network of this family firm provides a portrait of the social structure of the local community, where the central position of a few trusted notaries and members of the business and political elite highlights the prevalence of relationships of power and favor over impersonal market exchange. The predominance of informal credit reveals a preference for loans made outside of notarial circuits. Nonetheless, notaries were crucial in lending to borrowers of lower social status and with weak ties, thus helping the liquidity of these merchants to “trickle down” into local society.
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- © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Business History Conference. All rights reserved.
References
Bibliography of Works Cited
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Briggs, Chris. Credit and Village Society in Fourteenth-Century England. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caracausi, Andrea, and Jeggle, Christof, eds. Commercial Networks and European Cities, 1400–1800. London: Pickering & Chatto, 2014.Google Scholar
Carboni, Mauro, and Muzzarelli, Maria Giuseppina, eds. Reti di credito: circuiti informali, impropri, nascosti (secoli XIII-XIX). Bologna: Il Mulino, 2014.Google Scholar
Donati, Claudio. Ecclesiastici e laici nel Trentino del Settecento (1748-1763). Rome: Istituto storico italiano per l’età moderna e contemporanea, 1975.Google Scholar
Fontaine, Laurence. The Moral Economy. Poverty, Credit, and Trust in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Gestrich, Andreas, and Stark, Martin, eds. Debtors, Creditors, and Their Networks. Social Dimensions of Monetary Dependence from the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Century. London: German Historical Institute London, 2015.Google Scholar
Goldthwaite, Richard A. The Economy of Renaissance Florence. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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Hoffman, Philip T., Postel-Vinay, Gilles, and Rosenthal, Jean-Laurent. Dark Matter Credit: The Development of Peer-to-Peer Lending and Banking in France. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2019.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Philip T. Priceless Markets. The Political Economy of Credit in Paris, 1660-1870. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Imp. Regi Statuti e privilegi per le libere fiere della città di Bolzano. Vienna, 1793.Google Scholar
Lorandini, Cinzia. Famiglia e impresa. I Salvadori di Trento nei secoli XVII e XVIII. Bologna: Il Mulino, 2006.Google Scholar
Lorenzini, Marcella, Lorandini, Cinzia, and Coffman, D’Maris, eds. Financing in Europe: Evolution, Coexistence and Complementarity of Lending Practices from the Middle Ages to Modern Times. Cham, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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Muldrew, Craig. The Economy of Obligation. The Culture of Credit and Social Relations in Early Modern England. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1998.Google Scholar
[Paoli, Domenico]. Lettera in difesa dello scritto di credito, censo personale e germanico: ove si scoprono le calunnie che a detto contratto non meno che ai difensori di esso da certo dialogista con suo manoscritto s’impongono … / opera composta da Nicodemos Liopas. Trento: Monauni, 1780.Google Scholar
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Simonsohn, Shlomo. History of the Jews in the Duchy of Mantua. Jerusalem: Kiryath Sepher, 1977.Google Scholar
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Statuto di Trento: con li suoi indici si nel civile come nel sindicale e criminale… il tutto ridotto in volgare per maggior intelligenza di ciascuno. Trento: Brunati, 1714.Google Scholar
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Carboni, Mauro. “Converting Goods into Cash: An Ethical Approach to Pawnbroking in Early Modern Bologna.” Renaissance and Reformation 35, no. 3 (2012): 63–83.Google Scholar
Clemens, Gabriele B., and Reupke, Daniel. “Challenging the Institutional Revolution of Credit Markets in the Nineteenth Century,” in Financing in Europe: Evolution, Coexistence and Complementarity of Lending Practices from the Middle Ages to Modern Times, edited by Lorenzini, Marcella, Lorandini, Cinzia, and Coffman, D’Maris, 267–288. Cham, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.Google Scholar
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Giuseppe, De Luca, and Lorenzini, Marcella. “Not Only Land: Mortgage Credit in Central-Northern Italy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” in Land and Credit: Mortgages in the Medieval and Early Modern European Countryside, edited by Briggs, Chris and Zuijderduijn, Jaco, 181–204. Cham, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.Google Scholar
Denzel, Markus A. “Das Maklerwesen auf den Bozner Messen im 18. Jahrhundert.” VSWG: Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte 96, no. 3 (2009): 297–319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dermineur, Elise M. “Peer-to-Peer lending in Pre-Industrial France.” Financial History Review 26, no. 3 (2019): 359–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erickson, Bonnie H. “Social Networks and History: A Review Essay.” Historical Methods 30, no. 3 (1997): 149–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Felloni, Giuseppe. “Dall’Italia all’Europa: il primato della finanza italiana dal Medioevo alla prima età moderna,” in Storia d’Italia. Annali 23, La Banca, edited by Bermond, Claudio, Cova, Alberto, Moioli, Angelo and La Francesca, Salvatore, 93–149. Torino: Einaudi, 2008.Google Scholar
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Franzosi, Roberto, and Mohr, John W.. “New Directions in Formalization and Historical Analysis.” Theory and Society 26, no. 2/3 (1997): 133–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garbellotti, Marina. “Creditori e insolventi in tribunale (Trento, XVIII secolo),” in Reti di credito. Circuiti informali, impropri, nascosti (secoli XIII-XIX), edited by Muzzarelli, Maria Giuseppina and Carboni, Mauro, 383–406. Bologna: Il Mulino, 2014.Google Scholar
Garbellotti, Marina. “Il patrimonio dei poveri. Aspetti economici degli istituti assistenziali a Trento nei secoli XVII-XVIII,” in L’uso del denaro. Patrimoni e amministrazione nei luoghi pii e negli enti ecclesiastici in Italia (secoli XV-XVIII), edited by Pastore, Alessandro and Garbellotti, Marina, 195–229. Bologna: Il Mulino, 2001.Google Scholar
Gelderblom, Oscar, Hup, Mark, and Jonker, Joost. “Public Functions, Private Markets: Credit Registration by Aldermen and Notaries in the Low Countries, 1500–1800,” in Financing in Europe: Evolution, Coexistence and Complementarity of Lending Practices from the Middle Ages to Modern Times, edited by Lorenzini, Marcella, Lorandini, Cinzia, and Coffman, D’Maris, 163–194. Cham, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelderblom, Oscar, Jonker, Joost, and Kool, Clemens. “Direct Finance in the Dutch Golden Age.” Economic History Review 69, no. 4 (2016): 1178–1198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelderblom, Oscar, and Trivellato, Francesca. “The Business History of the Preindustrial World: Towards a Comparative Historical Analysis.” Business History 61, no. 2 (2019): 225–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggerty, John, and Haggerty, Sheryllynne. “Visual Analytics of an Eighteenth-Century Business Network.” Enterprise & Society 11, no. 1 (2010): 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, Philip T., Postel-Vinay, Gilles, and Rosenthal, Jean-Laurent. “Information and Economic History: How the Credit Market in Old Regime Paris Forces Us to Rethink the Transformation to Capitalism.” American Historical Review 104, no. 1 (1999): 69–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leonardi, Andrea. “Il setificio roveretano: un’occasione perduta di sviluppo industriale,” in Nicolò Cristani de Rallo, Breve descrizione della Pretura di Rovereto (1766), edited by Leonardi, Andrea, 5–25. Rovereto (TN): Accademia roveretana degli Agiati, 1988.Google Scholar
Lindgren, Håkan. “Parish Banking in Informal Credit Markets: The Business of Private Lending in Early Nineteenth-Century Sweden.” Financial History Review 24, no. 1 (2017): 83–102.Google Scholar
Lorandini, Cinzia. “Financing Trade through Limited Partnerships: Evidence from Silk Firms in Eighteenth-Century Trentino,” in Financing in Europe: Evolution, Coexistence and Complementarity of Lending Practices from the Middle Ages to Modern Times, edited by Lorenzini, Marcella, Lorandini, Cinzia and Coffman, D’Maris, 73–103. Cham, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.Google Scholar
Lorandini, Cinzia. “Looking beyond the Buddenbrooks Syndrome: The Salvadori Firm of Trento, 1660s-1880s.” Business History 57, no. 7 (2015): 1005–1019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lorenzini, Marcella. “Borrowing and Lending Money in Alpine Areas During the Eighteenth Century: Trento and Rovereto Compared,” in Financing in Europe: Evolution, Coexistence and Complementarity of Lending Practices from the Middle Ages to Modern Times, edited by Lorenzini, Marcella, Lorandini, Cinzia and Coffman, D’Maris, 107–134. Cham, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLean, Paul D., and Gondal, Neha. “The Circulation of Interpersonal Credit in Renaissance Florence.” European Journal of Sociology 55, no. 2 (2014): 135–176.Google Scholar
Matringe, Nadia. “Le dépôt en foire au début de l’époque moderne: Transfert de crédit et financement du commerce.” Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales 72, no. 2 (2017): 381–423.Google Scholar
Morrissey, Robert M. “Archives of Connections.” Historical Methods 48, no. 3 (2015): 67–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nubola, Cecilia. “Elections and Decision-Making on the Outskirts of the Empire: The Case of Trento,” in Urban elections and decision-making in early modern Europe: 1500-1800, edited by Schlögl, Rudolf, 34–51. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge scholars publishing, 2009.Google Scholar
Ogilvie, Sheilagh, Küpker, Markus, and Maegraith, Janine. “Household Debt in Early Modern Germany: Evidence from Personal Inventories.” Journal of Economic History 72, no. 1 (2012): 134–167.Google Scholar
Padgett, John F., and McLean, Paul D.. “Economic Credit in Renaissance Florence.” Journal of Modern History 83, no. 1 (2011): 1–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puttevils, Jeroen. “Tweaking Financial Instruments: Bills Obligatory in Sixteenth-Century Antwerp.” Financial History Review 22, no. 3 (2015): 337–361.Google Scholar
Shaw, James E. “The Informal Economy of Credit in Early Modern Venice.” Historical Journal 61, no. 3 (2018): 623–642.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supple, Barry. “The Nature of Enterprise,” in The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, edited by Rich, E. E. and Wilson, C. H., 393–461. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.Google Scholar
Van Bochove, Christiaan, and Kole, Helen. “Uncovering Private Credit Markets: Amsterdam, 1660-1809.” TSEG – The Low Countries Journal of Social and Economic History 11, no. 3 (2014): 39–72.Google Scholar
Wetherell, Charles. “Historical Social Network Analysis.” International Review of Social History 43 (1998): 125–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archivio di Stato di Trento (State Archives of Trento)Google Scholar
Archivio storico del Comune di Trento (Historical Archives of the Municipality of Trento)Google Scholar
Berthe, Maurice, ed. Endettement Paysan et Crédit Rural dans l’Europe médiévale et moderne. Toulose: Presses universitaires du Midi, 1998.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borgatti, Steve P., Everett, Martin G., and Freeman, Lin. Ucinet for Windows: Software for Social Network Analysis. Harvard, MA: Analytic Technologies, 2002.Google Scholar
Briggs, Chris. Credit and Village Society in Fourteenth-Century England. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caracausi, Andrea, and Jeggle, Christof, eds. Commercial Networks and European Cities, 1400–1800. London: Pickering & Chatto, 2014.Google Scholar
Carboni, Mauro, and Muzzarelli, Maria Giuseppina, eds. Reti di credito: circuiti informali, impropri, nascosti (secoli XIII-XIX). Bologna: Il Mulino, 2014.Google Scholar
Donati, Claudio. Ecclesiastici e laici nel Trentino del Settecento (1748-1763). Rome: Istituto storico italiano per l’età moderna e contemporanea, 1975.Google Scholar
Fontaine, Laurence. The Moral Economy. Poverty, Credit, and Trust in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Gestrich, Andreas, and Stark, Martin, eds. Debtors, Creditors, and Their Networks. Social Dimensions of Monetary Dependence from the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Century. London: German Historical Institute London, 2015.Google Scholar
Goldthwaite, Richard A. The Economy of Renaissance Florence. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggerty, Sheryllynne. ‘Merely for money’? Business culture in the British Atlantic, 1750–1815. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Philip T., Postel-Vinay, Gilles, and Rosenthal, Jean-Laurent. Dark Matter Credit: The Development of Peer-to-Peer Lending and Banking in France. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2019.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Philip T. Priceless Markets. The Political Economy of Credit in Paris, 1660-1870. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Imp. Regi Statuti e privilegi per le libere fiere della città di Bolzano. Vienna, 1793.Google Scholar
Lorandini, Cinzia. Famiglia e impresa. I Salvadori di Trento nei secoli XVII e XVIII. Bologna: Il Mulino, 2006.Google Scholar
Lorenzini, Marcella, Lorandini, Cinzia, and Coffman, D’Maris, eds. Financing in Europe: Evolution, Coexistence and Complementarity of Lending Practices from the Middle Ages to Modern Times. Cham, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mori, Simona. Il ducato di Mantova nell’età delle riforme (1736-1784). Governo, amministrazione, finanze. Firenze: La Nuova Italia, 1998.Google Scholar
Muldrew, Craig. The Economy of Obligation. The Culture of Credit and Social Relations in Early Modern England. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1998.Google Scholar
[Paoli, Domenico]. Lettera in difesa dello scritto di credito, censo personale e germanico: ove si scoprono le calunnie che a detto contratto non meno che ai difensori di esso da certo dialogista con suo manoscritto s’impongono … / opera composta da Nicodemos Liopas. Trento: Monauni, 1780.Google Scholar
Schofield, Phillipp R., and Lambrecht, Thijs, eds. Credit and the Rural Economy in North-Western Europe, c.1200–c.1850. Turnhout: Brepols, 2009.Google Scholar
Simonsohn, Shlomo. History of the Jews in the Duchy of Mantua. Jerusalem: Kiryath Sepher, 1977.Google Scholar
Smith, S. D. Slavery, Family, and Gentry Capitalism in the British Atlantic: The World of the Lascelles, 1648–1834. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Statuto di Trento: con li suoi indici si nel civile come nel sindicale e criminale… il tutto ridotto in volgare per maggior intelligenza di ciascuno. Trento: Brunati, 1714.Google Scholar
Bonoldi, Andrea. “Commercio e credito tra Italia e Germania: Bolzano e le sue fiere tra XIII e XIX secolo,” in Tra vecchi e nuovi equilibri. Domanda e offerta di servizi in Italia in età moderna e contemporanea, edited by Lopane, Iginia and Ritrovato, Ezio, 13–25. Bari: Cacucci, 2007.Google Scholar
Buchnea, Emily. “Transatlantic Transformations: Visualizing Change Over Time in the Liverpool–New York Trade Network, 1763–1833.” Enterprise & Society 15, no. 4 (2014): 687–721.Google Scholar
Carboni, Mauro. “Converting Goods into Cash: An Ethical Approach to Pawnbroking in Early Modern Bologna.” Renaissance and Reformation 35, no. 3 (2012): 63–83.Google Scholar
Clemens, Gabriele B., and Reupke, Daniel. “Challenging the Institutional Revolution of Credit Markets in the Nineteenth Century,” in Financing in Europe: Evolution, Coexistence and Complementarity of Lending Practices from the Middle Ages to Modern Times, edited by Lorenzini, Marcella, Lorandini, Cinzia, and Coffman, D’Maris, 267–288. Cham, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.Google Scholar
De Luca, Giuseppe. “Informal Credit and Economic Modernization in Milan (1802–1840).” Journal of European Economic History 42 (2013): 211–234.Google Scholar
Giuseppe, De Luca, and Lorenzini, Marcella. “Not Only Land: Mortgage Credit in Central-Northern Italy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” in Land and Credit: Mortgages in the Medieval and Early Modern European Countryside, edited by Briggs, Chris and Zuijderduijn, Jaco, 181–204. Cham, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.Google Scholar
Denzel, Markus A. “Das Maklerwesen auf den Bozner Messen im 18. Jahrhundert.” VSWG: Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte 96, no. 3 (2009): 297–319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dermineur, Elise M. “Peer-to-Peer lending in Pre-Industrial France.” Financial History Review 26, no. 3 (2019): 359–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erickson, Bonnie H. “Social Networks and History: A Review Essay.” Historical Methods 30, no. 3 (1997): 149–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Felloni, Giuseppe. “Dall’Italia all’Europa: il primato della finanza italiana dal Medioevo alla prima età moderna,” in Storia d’Italia. Annali 23, La Banca, edited by Bermond, Claudio, Cova, Alberto, Moioli, Angelo and La Francesca, Salvatore, 93–149. Torino: Einaudi, 2008.Google Scholar
Fontaine, Laurence. “Introduction,” in Endettement Paysan et Crédit Rural dans l’Europe médiévale et moderne, edited by Berthe, Maurice, 7–21. Toulose: Presses universitaires du Midi, 1998.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franzosi, Roberto, and Mohr, John W.. “New Directions in Formalization and Historical Analysis.” Theory and Society 26, no. 2/3 (1997): 133–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garbellotti, Marina. “Creditori e insolventi in tribunale (Trento, XVIII secolo),” in Reti di credito. Circuiti informali, impropri, nascosti (secoli XIII-XIX), edited by Muzzarelli, Maria Giuseppina and Carboni, Mauro, 383–406. Bologna: Il Mulino, 2014.Google Scholar
Garbellotti, Marina. “Il patrimonio dei poveri. Aspetti economici degli istituti assistenziali a Trento nei secoli XVII-XVIII,” in L’uso del denaro. Patrimoni e amministrazione nei luoghi pii e negli enti ecclesiastici in Italia (secoli XV-XVIII), edited by Pastore, Alessandro and Garbellotti, Marina, 195–229. Bologna: Il Mulino, 2001.Google Scholar
Gelderblom, Oscar, Hup, Mark, and Jonker, Joost. “Public Functions, Private Markets: Credit Registration by Aldermen and Notaries in the Low Countries, 1500–1800,” in Financing in Europe: Evolution, Coexistence and Complementarity of Lending Practices from the Middle Ages to Modern Times, edited by Lorenzini, Marcella, Lorandini, Cinzia, and Coffman, D’Maris, 163–194. Cham, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelderblom, Oscar, Jonker, Joost, and Kool, Clemens. “Direct Finance in the Dutch Golden Age.” Economic History Review 69, no. 4 (2016): 1178–1198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelderblom, Oscar, and Trivellato, Francesca. “The Business History of the Preindustrial World: Towards a Comparative Historical Analysis.” Business History 61, no. 2 (2019): 225–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggerty, John, and Haggerty, Sheryllynne. “Visual Analytics of an Eighteenth-Century Business Network.” Enterprise & Society 11, no. 1 (2010): 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, Philip T., Postel-Vinay, Gilles, and Rosenthal, Jean-Laurent. “Information and Economic History: How the Credit Market in Old Regime Paris Forces Us to Rethink the Transformation to Capitalism.” American Historical Review 104, no. 1 (1999): 69–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leonardi, Andrea. “Il setificio roveretano: un’occasione perduta di sviluppo industriale,” in Nicolò Cristani de Rallo, Breve descrizione della Pretura di Rovereto (1766), edited by Leonardi, Andrea, 5–25. Rovereto (TN): Accademia roveretana degli Agiati, 1988.Google Scholar
Lindgren, Håkan. “Parish Banking in Informal Credit Markets: The Business of Private Lending in Early Nineteenth-Century Sweden.” Financial History Review 24, no. 1 (2017): 83–102.Google Scholar
Lorandini, Cinzia. “Financing Trade through Limited Partnerships: Evidence from Silk Firms in Eighteenth-Century Trentino,” in Financing in Europe: Evolution, Coexistence and Complementarity of Lending Practices from the Middle Ages to Modern Times, edited by Lorenzini, Marcella, Lorandini, Cinzia and Coffman, D’Maris, 73–103. Cham, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.Google Scholar
Lorandini, Cinzia. “Looking beyond the Buddenbrooks Syndrome: The Salvadori Firm of Trento, 1660s-1880s.” Business History 57, no. 7 (2015): 1005–1019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lorenzini, Marcella. “Borrowing and Lending Money in Alpine Areas During the Eighteenth Century: Trento and Rovereto Compared,” in Financing in Europe: Evolution, Coexistence and Complementarity of Lending Practices from the Middle Ages to Modern Times, edited by Lorenzini, Marcella, Lorandini, Cinzia and Coffman, D’Maris, 107–134. Cham, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLean, Paul D., and Gondal, Neha. “The Circulation of Interpersonal Credit in Renaissance Florence.” European Journal of Sociology 55, no. 2 (2014): 135–176.Google Scholar
Matringe, Nadia. “Le dépôt en foire au début de l’époque moderne: Transfert de crédit et financement du commerce.” Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales 72, no. 2 (2017): 381–423.Google Scholar
Morrissey, Robert M. “Archives of Connections.” Historical Methods 48, no. 3 (2015): 67–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nubola, Cecilia. “Elections and Decision-Making on the Outskirts of the Empire: The Case of Trento,” in Urban elections and decision-making in early modern Europe: 1500-1800, edited by Schlögl, Rudolf, 34–51. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge scholars publishing, 2009.Google Scholar
Ogilvie, Sheilagh, Küpker, Markus, and Maegraith, Janine. “Household Debt in Early Modern Germany: Evidence from Personal Inventories.” Journal of Economic History 72, no. 1 (2012): 134–167.Google Scholar
Padgett, John F., and McLean, Paul D.. “Economic Credit in Renaissance Florence.” Journal of Modern History 83, no. 1 (2011): 1–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puttevils, Jeroen. “Tweaking Financial Instruments: Bills Obligatory in Sixteenth-Century Antwerp.” Financial History Review 22, no. 3 (2015): 337–361.Google Scholar
Shaw, James E. “The Informal Economy of Credit in Early Modern Venice.” Historical Journal 61, no. 3 (2018): 623–642.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supple, Barry. “The Nature of Enterprise,” in The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, edited by Rich, E. E. and Wilson, C. H., 393–461. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.Google Scholar
Van Bochove, Christiaan, and Kole, Helen. “Uncovering Private Credit Markets: Amsterdam, 1660-1809.” TSEG – The Low Countries Journal of Social and Economic History 11, no. 3 (2014): 39–72.Google Scholar
Wetherell, Charles. “Historical Social Network Analysis.” International Review of Social History 43 (1998): 125–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archivio di Stato di Trento (State Archives of Trento)Google Scholar
Archivio storico del Comune di Trento (Historical Archives of the Municipality of Trento)Google Scholar