Emergent processes of adaptive capacity building: Local government climate change alliances and networks in Melbourne
Introduction
Over recent decades climate change adaptation has become increasingly important as a policy issue with the policy agenda more recently shaped by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC’s) Fifth Assessment Report (IPCC, 2014a). The AR5 found that ‘it is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century’ (IPCC, 2013: 17) and that ‘in recent decades, changes in climate have caused impacts on natural and human systems on all continents’ (IPCC, 2014a: 4). Adaptation, considered a necessary strategy for managing the risks of climate change, has been defined as ‘the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects’, seeking to ‘moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities’ (IPCC, 2014b: 5). The IPCC goes on to propose a set of principles for effective adaptation, including that ‘adaptation is place- and context-specific, with no single approach for reducing risks appropriate across all settings’ and suggesting that ‘adaptation planning and implementation can be enhanced through complementary action across levels, from individuals to governments’ (IPCC, 2014c: 85). These two points frame some of the key practical challenges of adapting to climate change in human systems: how can collaboration and coordination across scales and between individuals and organisations be supported whilst also being highly place- and context-specific?
In this paper, we explore this question using examples of emergent forms of networked local climate change governance in the form of regional local government alliances, that have demonstrated potential for facilitating learning and capacity building towards more effective adaptation. While the role of ‘cross border’ institutional and governing arrangements has been highlighted as important in addressing complex natural resource management issues, there is to date little research around how these arrangements are emerging to address climate adaptation (Steele et al., 2013: 700). We situate our analysis of local government alliances by reviewing theoretical literature on adaptive capacity development and multi-level and network governance to elaborate key characteristics of cross-scale adaptive governance. We then examine the role of selected state and non-state actors, operating at the local scale, in responding to climate change in the context of state level climate change adaptation policy. Based on a review of adaptation research and evidence of local practices of adaptation planning, we show how new forms of regional adaptive governance are contributing to building the capacities of local governments and communities to respond to climate change in the state of Victoria, Australia.
Section snippets
Learning institutions: What constitutes effective local adaptation governance?
In order to adapt, systems, institutions, or individuals need to develop their adaptive capacity, i.e. an ability to ‘adjust to potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to respond to consequences’ of climate change (IPCC, 2014b: 5). For climate change responses to be effective, multi-level governance approaches with interactions across all levels of government from the national to state and local scales have been deemed important (Bauer and Steurer, 2014, Hanssen et al., 2013).
Multi-level climate change adaptation governance in Australia
While there has been some effort in Australia to clarify the roles, responsibilities and liabilities of the three (Federal, State and Local) levels of government in developing adaptation strategies (Standing Committee on Climate Change, Water and the Arts, 2009) and foster multi-level collaboration, in reality multi-level governance for adaptation remains largely aspirational. The clarification of roles is a ‘work in progress’ and much of the adaptation effort can still be characterised as
Climate change adaptation governance in Victoria
A number of recent reports have outlined climate change impacts and risks specific to the Victorian context (Climate Commission, 2011, Commissioner for Environmental Sustainability, 2012, Victorian Government, 2013). Five key risks have been associated with climate change projections for Victoria (Table 3): bushfires, heatwaves, floods, drought, and sea-level rise and coastal impacts with the current and projected future impacts influencing the types of place-based risk management strategies
‘Muddling through’: Gaps and challenges for local climate change adaptation governance in Victoria
‘…the lack of formalized practice for adaptation planning and the inconsistent use of existing adaptation guidance means that many institutions are largely ‘muddling through’ the planning process.’
Preston et al., 2010: 427
In reflecting on progress around adaptation planning and governance, recent research highlights an ongoing lack of systematic and rigorous adaptation planning in Australia, and Victoria is no exception (Gurran et al., 2011, Preston et al., 2010, Webb and Beh, 2013). The need
Local government climate change alliances: The role of informal networks in adaptive capacity building
We now focus on the emergence and role of Climate Change Alliances (CCAs) as local and regional scale networks contributing to adaptive capacity building in Victoria, arguing that they have, in many instances, filled a policy gap that has opened up in climate change adaptation between state and local government level. While other states in Australia include a number of partnerships and local government associations, Victoria is unique in having what could be considered an ‘informal’ tier of
Conclusion
The Victorian example demonstrates that multi-level forms of governance remain largely aspirational and highly evolutionary in Australia. In recent years with both the state and federal governments absolving themselves of responsibility to systematically address climate change mitigation and (to a lesser extent) adaptation, local level governments have developed and demonstrated their own capacity to adapt and respond. The necessity to build adaptive capacity at the local scale has led to
Acknowledgments
This article is based on a discussion paper prepared for the Victorian Centre for Climate Change Adaptation Research (VCCCAR), Melbourne, Australia. The authors are grateful for funding received from VCCCAR and from the Global Cities Research Institute, RMIT University.
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