Trends in Plant Science
ReviewRegulation of cytoskeletal dynamics by phospholipase D and phosphatidic acid
Section snippets
Linking lipid signaling with the cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton serves as a molecular scaffold to position various cellular constituents, such as membrane-bound organelles and multiprotein complexes. It also serves as a highway for the transport of various cargoes by molecular motor proteins, and underpins cellular architecture and cell shape control. In plants, the cytoskeleton comprises two main components: actin filaments or F-actin, formed from actin monomers (G-actin); and microtubules polymerized from α/β tubulin heterodimers. Actin
PA production and its biophysical properties
PA represents the simplest phospholipid, comprising a diacylglycerol (DAG) hydrophobic body and a single phosphate group as the polar hydrophilic headgroup. There are numerous PA species with different lengths and degrees of fatty acyl chain saturation, which confers specific functional consequences [24]. A characteristic feature of all signaling phospholipids is their rapid and tightly regulated turnover. Apart from de novo PA synthesis and acylation of lyso-PA, there are two major, distinct
PA and the actin cytoskeleton
Several studies published over the past decade have shown that alteration of cellular PA levels can have a marked effect on actin cytoskeleton organization 17, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38. The inhibition of PA production via PLD activity by n-butanol treatment causes disruption of actin filaments, whereas elevation of the PA level (by either exogenously added PA or the inhibition of PA phosphatase activity) increases the density of actin filaments consistent with actin assembly or stabilization 38,
PA and the microtubule cytoskeleton
Both PA and PLD have been identified as important regulators of microtubule array rearrangements and plasma membrane–microtubule cytoskeleton interactions 11, 20, 60, 61, 62. Similar to the actin cytoskeleton, microtubule arrays are also sensitive to the alteration of cellular PA levels. Applying n-butanol to tobacco Bright Yellow 2 (BY-2) suspension cells and Arabidopsis seedlings results in substantial cortical microtubule reorganization and/or depolymerization 34, 60, 61, 63, 64. Further, N
Concluding remarks
During the past decade, multifaceted interactions between PA-based signaling pathways and actin and microtubule dynamics have been revealed. Several studies have described the mechanism of PLD–PA interaction with actin and microtubule cytoskeletons, at varying levels of resolution. We propose a simplified model for the positive feedback loop that governs local actin polymerization status via PLD, PA, and CP (Figure 2). This model is corroborated by results showing for the first time that CP is
Acknowledgments
Research on CP in the Staiger laboratory is funded through a grant (DE-FG02-09ER15526) from the Physical Biosciences Program of the Office of Basic Energy Sciences, US Department of Energy. Phospholipid signaling research in the Žárský laboratory is supported by a grant (GACR 13-19073S to M.P.) from the Czech Grant Agency.
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