Contingent valuation of dolphin watching activities in South China: The difference between local and non-local participants
Graphical abstract
Introduction
Ecotourism, a form of sustainable tourism, takes place at nature-based destinations that promote environmental awareness and emphasize environmental, economic and socio-cultural sustainability (Weaver, 2001). This form of tourism has been growing in demand globally, accounting for 7% of world exports of tourism services and contributing to 10% of the world's GDP (Centre for Responsible Travel, 2017). As ecotourism promotes all aspects of sustainability, countries have been utilizing it as a tool to develop a sustainable economy in rural and local communities and conserve valuable environmental resources (Cheng et al., 2018; Cheung and Jim, 2013; Chow et al., 2019; Fennell, 2014; Wearing and Neil, 2009; Weaver, 2001; Wilson and Tisdell, 2003). Much success has been accomplished in communities around the world; for example, Weinberg et al. (2002) demonstrated the success and implications of ecotourism in New Zealand and Costa Rica; Ross and Wall (1999) evaluated ecotourism in three protected areas in North Sulawesi and showed that it brought mutual benefits to the environment and the community.
A well-designed economic valuation instrument is essential for assessing whether the ecotourism sector of the local economy is sustainable, and willingness to pay (WTP) is one instrument that is widely adopted and accepted in various studies (Cheung and Jim, 2014; Kazeminia et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2010; Nuva et al., 2009; Tisdell and Wilson, 2005). WTP effectively shows tourists' economic preferences for ecotourism services (Batel et al., 2014; Cheung, 2016; Kazeminia et al., 2016) and the estimated economic benefits that could be derived from environmental resources (Kim et al., 2017; Nuva et al., 2009; Seeteram et al., 2018); further, WTP can provide clues for designing a pricing strategy (Hultman et al., 2015). Tourists do not pay for services without a purpose; they pay because they have expectations. Various tourism studies have explored the relationships among different factors, such as demand and expectations, that could influence the WTP of tourists. Tourists or citizens who show environmentally responsible behaviour are willing to pay more to support sustainability (Attaran and Celik, 2015), contribute to and compensate for environmental impact (Onel and Mukherjee, 2016), or put their environmental values into action (Cheng et al., 2018; Hwang and Lee, 2018). Other studies have shown that satisfied tourists are willing to pay premium prices (Baral et al., 2008; López-Mosquera and Sánchez, 2014; Noe et al., 1986). Because Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China is an international city, participants of eco-tours in Hong Kong often consist of both local and non-local visitors. The origin of visitors is another important factor to consider, as the preferences of foreign and domestic tourists affect their WTP. Tourist origins could differ significantly, as reflected in past studies (Hearne and Salinas, 2002; Tongson and Dygico, 2004).
As suggested by Cheung and Jim (2014), the prices for ecotourism services in Hong Kong are generally lower than the WTP of tourists because of the competition for customers among tourism operators. In fact, local dolphin watching tours cost only approximately 20–30 HKD (approximately 2.5–4 USD) (Oriental Press Group Ltd, 2015), which is very inexpensive in terms of the general price levels in Hong Kong. Taiwan and Japan are also famous for cetacean-watching eco-tours; the price level of a tour in Taiwan provided by the government was approximately 800–1000 NT (approximately 26–32 USD) (East Coast National Scenic Area, 2018; Yilan Tourism, 2018), while eco-tours provided by the famous Zamami Whale Watching Association and the Shiretoko Nature Cruises whale watching agency in Japan were approximately 4000–8000 Yen (approximately 36–72 USD) (Cruises, 2018; Zamami Whale Watching Association, 2018). It is clear that the price of dolphin watching tours in Hong Kong is unreasonably low. The equally low quality of ecotourism services, in terms of environmental responsibility, environmental knowledge and the professionalism of tour guides, are the trade-offs for a low price (Cheung and Jim, 2014). This study, therefore, aims to investigate and gain insights into the association of factors that influence the actual and reported WTP of tourists. This information would allow tour operators to understand what increases tourists' WTP. Thus, tour operators could adjust their pricing and service provision strategy accordingly and not focus solely on price competition. Ultimately, maintaining a higher level of ecotourism service would provide a reliable income source for operators without over-exploiting the environment. The same rationale could also be applied to studying or operating other types of nature-based or ecotourism services in Hong Kong.
Geographically, it has been suggested that ecotourism in Asia is growing substantially, yet Asian ecotourism destinations have been understudied (Weaver, 2001). Another concern for ecotourism in Asia is the conflict between tour operators and nature destination authorities (e.g., management authorities of protected areas) on the use of resources (Weaver, 2001). The current study may provide crucial information to improve ecotourism practices, maintain sustainable income and conserve precious resources to resolve this conflict. This study would set an example for studies of willingness to pay for ecotourism in Hong Kong and possibly other Asian ecotourism destinations where the valuation of ecotourism has rarely been investigated.
Section snippets
Literature review
WTP has commonly been used as a method to show the economic preferences of benefits obtained by tourists from tourism resources (Kazeminia et al., 2016). At the same time, WTP could represent the willingness of people to compensate for impacts on the environment (Nuva et al., 2009). As tourism resources are sometimes non-market goods without a certain market value, WTP is a method that allows economic valuation of such goods (Chung et al., 2011; Reynisdottir et al., 2008). It helps estimate the
Study area
Tai O, which is located in the northwest of Lantau Island, was chosen as the study area. Tai O is situated at the estuary of the Pearl River Delta, which is an important habitat for the Chinese white dolphin (CWD). Dolphin watching tours are often provided by local tour operators for local and international visitors in Tai O. Tai O fishing village, also named the Venice of Hong Kong, is one of the oldest fishing villages in Hong Kong, and much of the old fishing village culture with its
Socio-demographic information
Regarding the profile of local visitors (Table 1), 57.9% of respondents were female, and 42.1% were male. The majority of the respondents were aged 18–30 and 31–40 (59.9%), while only 6.3% and 0.9% were 51–60 and above 61 years old, respectively. A large proportion of respondents fell into the groups with a monthly income of 10,000 HKD or below (31.1%) and 10,001–20,000 HKD (30.5%). It is likely that as students comprised 28.7% of the respondents, they represented many of the 31.1% of
Discussion & conclusion
The ERBI of local visitors was found to be significantly lower than that of non-local visitors in this study. As Hong Kong is an international city, its urban population reached 100% early in 1993 (The World Bank, 2018). While urban dwellers represented only 54% of the world population in 2016 (The World Bank, 2018), the people of Hong Kong have been living as urban dwellers for decades. Some studies have suggested that involvement and contact with the natural environment are key to determining
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the student research assistants of the Education University of Hong Kong for helping in questionnaire surveys, WWF HK assists in arrangement of data collection and the funding support from the FLASS Dean's Research Grant provided by the Faculty of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences of the Education University of Hong Kong.
Lewis T.O. Cheung is an Associate Professor in the Department of Social Sciences of the Education University of Hong Kong. His research interests focus on sustainable tourism in protected areas, environmental education, and environmental conservation.
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Cited by (0)
Lewis T.O. Cheung is an Associate Professor in the Department of Social Sciences of the Education University of Hong Kong. His research interests focus on sustainable tourism in protected areas, environmental education, and environmental conservation.
Anson T.H. Ma is a Research Assistant in the Department of Social Sciences of the Education University of Hong Kong. His research interests focus on nature-based tourism, ecology and environmental impacts.
Alice S.Y. Chow is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Social Sciences of the Education University of Hong Kong. Her research interests focus on sustainable transport and travelling, environmental attitude and behaviour, and environmental education.
John C.K. Lee is the Vice President (Academic) and Chair Professor of Curriculum and Instruction, The Education University of Hong Kong. He is also the director of Centre for Religious and Spirituality Education. He is Changjiang Chair Professor and the UNESCO chair of the Regional Education Development and Lifelong Learning. His research interests are curriculum studies, school and educational reform, teacher education and development as well as environmental and values education.
Lincoln Fok is an Associate Professor in the Department of Science and Environmental Studies of the Education University of Hong Kong. His research interests focus on hydrology process, environmental education, and public perception on environmental issues.
Irene N.Y. Cheng is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Science and Environmental Studies of the Education University of Hong Kong. Her research interests focus on geographical and environmental education, environmental attitudes and behaviour, and pedagogy of environmental studies.
Frank C.C. Cheang is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Science and Environmental Studies of the Education University of Hong Kong. His research interests focus on marine ecology, pedagogical theories and skills in the science and environmental education.