Opportunities for the production and economics of Virginia fanpetals (Sida hermaphrodita)

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.007Get rights and content

Highlights

  • Nurse-in-tray technology is cheaper and more reliable than sowing of Sida.

  • The direct unit costs are between 36 and 60 EUR t-1, depending on technology.

  • The production of Sida can generally be profitable, even under marginal conditions.

  • Direct combustion and honey production are the most profitable methods.

Abstract

The main goal of this paper is to analyse the efficiency of the plantlet production of Virginia fanpetals, to make economic calculations for their energetic use and to determine the most favourable plant density. According to the experiments, the cost of a healthy Sida plantlet is in the range of 38.4 − 60.6 Euro cents, using the nurse-in-tray technology (NIT). This cost range is much lower than the market prices of the plantlets and the production method is more reliable compared to sowing. In the second year, the dry matter yield originating from Sida plantlets was 10.2 – 11.9 t hectare−1 (ha) without fertilisation in the different planting densities. However, in the longer term, it is recommended to apply organic manure regardless of spacing. The theoretical market value of Sida is generally higher than total unit costs (36 − 60 EUR t1) in the case of all methods used, except for biogas. The production of Sida can be economical for farmers farming in marginal conditions, using locally available organic manure, producing crops with high heat demand, or involved in beekeeping.

Introduction

Global population growth coupled with changes in dietary habits will increase food demand, resulting in a shift in the utilisation of arable land to direct and indirect (meat and dairy production) food production. The production of third generation, i.e., biogeneration crops (e.g. algae) is a possible solution due to the energy use of first and second generation energy crops (maize, sorghum, etc.), as well as their unfavourable impact on food prices, arable land structure, water management and biodiversity [1], [2]. It is one of the main characteristics of these crops that the main objective of their genetic improvement with biotechnological tools is to be able to provide high biomass yields, even on marginal lands [3]. Theoretically, it would be possible to produce 25–30% of the world's liquid fuel demand in marginal areas [4]. Converting conventional crop areas to energy crop production leads to seasonally differentiated land use patterns for conventional crops [5], and field level profitability can also be improved [6]. As energy crops are new to farmers, and thus have certain risks associated with their cultivation, as well with securing both contracts and market prices, for a successful uptake it is vital they provide a reasonable income [7]. According to the analyses of Dombi et al., the most important elements of sustainability are land demand and social impacts (employment, revenue production) [8].

The primary aim of this research is to examine the production technology of Virginia fanpetals based on technical literature sources and the authors’ experimental data, as well as an economic analysis of Sida production in Hungary. In the experiments extensive agrotechnical solutions were used – without fertilisation – to analyse the crop nutrition ability of calcareous chernozem soil with low nutrient supply (pH: 7.93 ± 0.025; humus content: 3.14% ± 0.407, CaCO3: 4.67 ± 0.00, NH4: 0.15 mg kg−1, NO3:0.08 mg kg−1, Organic N: 0.14 mg kg−1 K2O: 465.0 ± 7.071, P2O5: 24.76 ± 0.692 mg kg−1), for the production of S. hermaphrodita. A relatively large spacing was used in small plot experiments in order to try to mitigate the soil depletion caused by crops. Furthermore, the profitability of the novel method was examined, as well. In addition to the various methods of heat energy production, biogas and honey production, as well as CO2 saving are also taken into consideration.

Sida has the potential to be a multi-purpose perennial semi-shrub plant of the temperate climate zone. This species is indigenous in North America, where it is an endangered species [9]. Virginia fanpetals is most effectively propagated vegetatively, as its root section is rich in buds, while sexual propagation is difficult due to the low and protracted germination of seeds, as well as the slow initial growth of the seedling [10], [11], [12]. Flowering begins in early summer (early June in Hungary) and it lasts until late October, which is favourable if the crop stand is used as bee pasture. Further favourable characteristics of Virginia fanpetals are that it is less sensitive to pH [13], and it already provides a significant yield in its second year of production [14].

If sexual propagation is used, it is necessary to increase the germination capacity of Sida, which is between 10% and 15% in the case of 1–2-year-old seeds [11], [12], [15]. Germination is further complicated by endogenous fungal diseases and the water impermeable coat of the seeds [10], [16], [17]. These considerations make two-step seed priming necessary before sowing, as this method completely eliminates contaminated seeds and the exogenous pathogenic fungal diseases of seeds, resulting in a potential germination percentage above 70% [18].

Sowing can be performed with S071/B KRUK, a one-by-one pneumatic seeder used in maize sowing, which has an appropriate efficiency and a proportion of skips below 22% [19]. However, plant density is not ideal and the percentage of duplicated plants is high. Considering the slow and uneven initial development of Sida seedlings, their sensitivity to weeds and potentially to chemical weed control [20], seeding is not reliable, while yield can only be expected following the third year; furthermore, the crop protection activities which need to be performed are quite costly. The required amount of sowing seed is between 2 and 6 kg per hectare [11].

Plantlet production is potentially favourable from many perspectives:

  • The problematic initial increase and the several hundred-fold demand for sowing seed can be eliminated [21].

  • Wide row spacing makes it possible to perform inter-row tillage, which is a more favourable method of weed control, considering the aspects of soil protection and the sensitivity of Virginia fanpetals to chemicals, as herbicides which have proved to be effective have an unfavourable impact on the enzyme activity of soils [22], [23]. On the other hand, the biomass yield can be increased with higher planting densities under normal soil conditions in Central Europe (Austria) by using mineral fertilizer [24].

  • In addition to using contamination-free propagation material (seed or plantlet) against fungal diseases, chemical weed control can also be provided. However, in dense populations, the number of spray applications needs to be increased to 2–3 occasions in a given growing season. In the case of wide plant density, the number of spray applications can be reduced to one per year [11].

Based on a comparative analysis, focusing on the biomass yield of 36 different energy crops, it can be concluded that Virginia fanpetals belongs to the upper third of energy crops, with its 15 t of dry matter yield per hectare [25]. Taking into consideration the fact that it is very suitable for soil remediation and the use of extensive production technology, this yield can be regarded as favourable. Furthermore, other studies have found that Sida biomass production intercropping with legumes and using digestate fertilisation under marginal conditions can result in higher biomass production and lower environmental pressure in the temperate zone (Germany) [26], [27]. Studies from Lithuania have reported the advanced effect of liming with N fertilisation on the biomass yield of Sida [28], [29].

In comparison with other similar crops which have a high biomass yield (such as willow or miscanthus), Sida extracts nutrients from the soil to a proportionately lower extent, since some of these nutrients are returned into the soil by means of the roots and fallen leaves of the crop. Harvesting performed in the proper time results in a low ash content and a relatively low level of extracted mineral substance content [30].

In the case of proper nutrient replenishment, Sida provides high biomass yield quantity (6.8–19.6 t absolute dry matter per hectare (DM t ha−1)) with a high heating value (17.5–19.9 MJ kg−1) [11], [31], [32], [33], [34] (Table 1).

If biomass is intended to be used in its green form, the most appropriate timing is determined by the given crop year. Polish examples refer to three harvesting dates [11]. Based on the experiments performed at the University of Lublin, fertilisation has a favourable impact on the growth of green mass up to the application of 400 kg ha−1 N active ingredient, even though it reduces the proportion of certain microelements and amino-acids. The yield of the two harvests ranged between 7.4.− 9.53 t ha−1 of green mass, depending on the fertiliser dose (N: 100–400 kg ha−1; K2O: 50–150; P2O5: 80 kg) [11]. Based on the research of Jablonowski et al. conducted in Germany the biomass production method with one harvest yearly for solid fuel has the highest energy balance, accounting for 439,288 MJ ha−1, compared to the more biomass harvesting system used with Sida biomass production [36].

There are several alternatives available for harvesting Sida. Mechanisation is the preferred method in the case of harvesting larger areas, as the cost of manual operations is many times higher than the cost of mechanical labour. In addition, harvest of the dried Sida biomass after vegetation allows both a maximum energy yield and a reduced negative impact on the growing plantation, which results in a sustainable supply of Sida biomass over several years [32], [33].

Harvesting is either performed in a single or double cut regime. The former can be carried out with forage harvesters used in maize harvesting [11]. Since the moisture content of the Sida stem decreases below 20% by the end of winter [11], the chopped stem can be left on the field.

Table 2 summarises the results of soil remediation research. The overwhelming majority of references are therefore of Polish origin, so it seems to be very important to compare them with the experiments of Virginia fanpetals production in Hungary, including results relating to land reclamation and waste management.

According to the measurements of Szepmlinski et al. [35] the heating value of Virginia fanpetals (18.3 MJ kg−1), the energy gained with different technologies (intensive: 1.81 GJ t−1, semi-intensive: 1.53 GJ t−1), as well as their energy efficiency (intensive: 10.2, semi-intensive: 12.6 per dry matter unit: HHV) in the years 2009–2011 [35] exceed the respective values of silo maize or sorghum. At the same time, the average dry matter yield of Sida per hectare was much lower than that of both crops (54% lower than maize yield and 23% lower than sorghum yield). With regard to the heating values of Sida, some papers also found an HHV of 18.1 MJ kg-1 and an LHV of 16.8 MJ kg-1 [33], [34], [36]. Stolarski et al. (2014) investigated the higher heating value of Sida hermaphrodita and obtained a value of 18.9 MJ kg-1, while Krička et al. tested an HHV of 17.9 MJ kg-1 [67], [68].

Virginia fanpetals is either directly combusted, or it can be used as an outstanding (supplementary) feedstock for biogas production in accordance with the measurements of Oleszek et al. [69]. The composition of Sida silage fermented for 40 days under mesophilic circumstances in 2010 was the following:

  • 26% dry matter, 91% of which was organic matter

  • 39% carbon, 1.7% nitrogen, (C/N ratio: 22.4%), 9.5% ash

  • pH: 5.5

The biogas yield of Sida was quite favourable, both in terms of quantity and quality (Table 3), and this yield can be further increased if the proper formula is followed. The C/N ratio is ideal in itself, unlike most animal or vegetable feedstock. The estimated optimum range is 15–30 [70], 20–30 [71], [72] and 25–30 [73].

The biogas yield of Virginia fanpetals was especially high between days 6 and 12, even reaching 20–60 Nm3 kg−1 DM.

It is important to emphasise that biogas production calls for much higher moisture content in comparison with combustion. For this reason, Virginia fanpetals for biogas production needs to be harvested in July. As no drying costs are incurred it can be regarded as cost saving and there is no dry matter loss which usually occurs at low temperatures.

Section snippets

Production technological experiments

The University of Debrecen provided a 10,000 m2 demonstration garden, half of which was used for mallow and other herbaceous biomass crops and/or ornamental plants, as well as half-wild and field crops used for various purposes. 5 m wide and 45 m long cultivated strips were established on the plot with similar grass-covered strips in between. According to preliminary plans, 7 cultivated and 7 grassy block were established. The mildly alkaline (7.93 pH ± 0.025) heavy chernozem soil was rich in

Theory

Since there is very scarce literature available for Sida, limited mainly to Polish sources reporting production-related experiments, the authors of this paper consider it important to communicate the results of the Hungarian field experiments including economic calculations of production costs and the profit attainable in the case of energy utilisation. The purpose of this study is to investigate the production technology of Virginia fanpetals based on technical literature sources, evaluate the

Efficiency of plantlet production methods

197–506 plantlets per m2 can be produced with the nurse-in-tray method, which corresponds to large-scale plantlet production (427 plantlets per m2). Based on the land rent, the rental rate for a polytunnel for the production of 1000 plantlets is between 4.30 and 17.00 EUR, depending on the plant density per m2. A higher density did not reduce germination; on the contrary, the most favourable germination rate was achieved in the case of the highest plant density (Table 5).

Based on the calculated

Efficiency of plantlet production methods

This experiment verified the authors’ previous hypothesis that the nurse-in-tray plantlet production and unprotected wintering (Nurse in Tray Method) of Virginia fanpetals with properly pre-treated seeds can be developed into an economical and safe new propagation method. Plantlet production can be performed near large-scale plots with low investment costs (38.4–60.6 Euro cents per plantlet) based on the calculated data. Firstly, there are no heating costs, and this phytotechnique can be easily

Conclusions

In accordance with the experiments, the cost of nurse-in-tray technology seems to be significantly cheaper, (38.4–60.6 Euro cent) compared to market plantlet prices. In addition, nurse-in-tray technology proved to be more reliable than sowing.

Based on the calculated biomass production of different dense plantations, the soil depletion impact of higher plant densities (13,300 and 20,000 plants per hectare) was increasingly evident; consequently, the biomass production decreased considerably

Acknowledgments

This study and our research work was partly supported by the Ereky Károly Biotechnology Foundation (Debrecen, Hungary). Special thanks to Mihály Dombi, Ph.D., who contributed to our research by translating relevant literature from Polish.

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