Astronomical tuning of long pollen records reveals the dynamic history of montane biomes and lake levels in the tropical high Andes during the Quaternary
Highlights
► Long continental pollen record spanning almost the entire Pleistocene. ► A 1641 points timeseries, based on published and unpublished pollen data. ► Land–sea correlation, astronomical tuning, and spectral analysis. ► Obliquity vs. precession driven vegetation dynamics on tropical mountains. ► Evolution of the Andean vegetation and basin development.
Introduction
One of the major achievements in the study of Earth system history is the reconstruction of global climate change over millions of years derived from deep sea sedimentary archives (Zachos et al., 2001; Walker and Lowe, 2007). In addition, ice archives from tropical glaciers (Thompson et al., 1998) and high-latitude ice sheets (Grootes et al., 1993; Jouzel et al., 2007; Loulergue et al., 2008) have provided a thorough picture of Pleistocene climate variability in unprecedented detail. There is a dearth, however, of designated climate records from terrestrial archives, and in particular from tropical areas, which prohibit a full understanding of the driving mechanisms behind long-term climate change and its impact on terrestrial biota. Though terrestrial pollen records were among the first to show a major step in global climate cooling about ∼2.6 million years ago (Ma) associated with the build-up and retreat of the large Northern Hemisphere ice caps (e.g. Godwin, 1956; Frenzel, 1968; Van der Hammen et al., 1971; Zagwijn, 1975), the fragmented character of continental records have hampered attempts to develop Quaternary reference sequences of terrestrial changes, partly due to the absence of robust and independent age constraints (e.g. Tzedakis et al., 2006). Land-based pollen sequences are therefore often compared with marine records on the basis of climatostratigraphic correlations (e.g. Tzedakis et al., 1997, 2001, 2004; Ruddiman, 2006; Bailey, 2009), while pollen records derived from strategically-placed marine sequences have allowed a direct marine–continental correlation on both orbital and millennial timescales, which refined our understanding of phase relationships between different components of the Earth system during the middle to late Pleistocene (e.g. Tzedakis et al., 2004; Margari et al., 2010).
Here we will elaborate on long pollen records derived from two sediment cores, Funza-1 and Funza-2, of the Bogotá basin (4°N, 2550 m altitude) in the tropical high Andes (Fig. 1). At present, the high plain of Bogotá represents the floor of a Pleistocene lake, which has been studied now for five decades, yielding a comprehensive data set of pollen and sediment fractions (Van der Hammen and González, 1960, 1963; Hooghiemstra, 1984, 1989; Hooghiemstra and Sarmiento, 1991; Van Veer and Hooghiemstra, 2000; Torres et al., 2005; Torres, 2006). The Bogotá basin consolidated after the strongest uplifting phase of the Eastern Cordillera in the Northern Andes (Van der Hammen et al., 1973; Helmens, 1990; Wijninga, 1996; Mora et al., 2008, 2010; Hoorn et al., 2010; Helmens, 2011). Although the lower part of the Funza-2 core (586–485 m) is interpreted as fluvial and may contain gaps in sedimentary record, sediments seem to have accumulated on a long-term scale without major interruptions (Hooghiemstra, 1984; Torres et al., 2005). At approximately 27 ka the basin lost its permanent lake; most plausibly the basin was overfilled with sediments giving rise to a large wetland area on the basin floor (Hooghiemstra, 1984). Much of the present-day high plain has been drained.
Dating of volcanic ash beds from previous analysis has repeatedly changed the age model of the studied sediments, because the wind-transported finest ash fractions were heavily contaminated with lacustrine deposits giving largely uncertain results (Andriessen et al., 1993). In this paper, we will focus on the cyclostratigraphic aspects, i.e. identification of the main astronomical-related frequencies in the composite pollen-based records of Funza-1 and Funza-2 to build a tuned time scale for the Quaternary sediments of Bogotá basin. Such an approach was successful in the adjacent Fúquene basin where a 60-m deep composite record reflecting the last 284,000 years (284 ka) was studied (Groot et al., 2011; Bogotá-A et al., 2011a,b; Vriend et al., 2012). Our time scale will give constraints on the time series of grain size analysis and aquatic vegetation, which will shed new light upon the development of sedimentary environments through time. In particular, we re-visit the history of the lake and show that the lake had not developed before 1.25–1.47 Ma. This led to a re-interpretation of the lower part of the pollen record. We show that the previously postulated hypothesis of an essentially different temperature-constrained altitudinal vegetation distribution is unnecessary to explain the record and we give a new environmental interpretation to the lower part of the pollen record. Finally, we will place the Pleistocene evolution of the montane forest and páramo biomes of the northern Andes into our new time framework.
Section snippets
Materials and methods
Funza-1 and Funza-2 were drilled near the village of Funza (4°50′N, 74°12′W, 2550 m.a.s.l.) located at the deepest part of the Bogotá basin (Fig. 1). Core Funza-1 was collected with rotary drilling from a mobile Portadrill truck. The site lies some 600 m from a wetland area bordering the small Bogotá River. Cores were collected in 50 cm increments and 6 cm diameter. The core reached to 357 m depth where technical problems with over-pressured ground water prevented deeper sediments from being
Age model construction
The initial age model of Funza-1 was based on 9 potassium-argon ages and 10 fission-track ages, all of poor statistical quality because only the finest wind-transported fraction of volcanic glass shards from the Central Cordillera were present in the sediments (Hooghiemstra, 1984). In addition a comparison was made between the pollen sequence of Funza-1 with a few European records to evaluate the age control of the core and to portray its climatologically importance (Hooghiemstra, 1984, 1989).
Climate evolution and time scale implications
At present it is difficult to judge whether the P-tuning or O-tuning model is to be preferred for the lower part of the Funza09 composite record, because independent age constraints are lacking besides the fission-track dates of the ash layers by Andriessen et al. (1993). At first sight, the consistency of the 7.6 m and 9.5 m cycles suggests a dominant precession forcing of the vegetation changes in the Bogotá basin prior to ∼1 Ma, which is clearly shown in the wavelet diagram of the AP% (Fig. 9
Conclusions
Sediments in the Bogotá basin have been explored for five decades and constitute a rich source of information on Pleistocene climate change and evolution of plant associations. However, different types of proxies and dating of collected volcanic ashes have been unable to provide a robust age model for sediments beyond radiocarbon time control. This paper represents a significant step forward in addressing the persistent uncertainty in the chronology of the Funza sequence. For the upper 255 m,
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the Colombian Geological Survey (Ingeominas, Bogotá) for the drilling cores Funza-1 (1974) and Funza-2 (1988) and COLCIENCIAS (Bogotá) for financial support to the drilling operation. The Netherlands Foundation for Scientific Research (project H 75-284 to H. Hooghiemstra, project W 75-168 to H. Hooghiemstra/E.T.H. Ran) and the University of Amsterdam (projects to T. Van der Hammen/O. Hulshof and to H. Hooghiemstra/V. Torres) for supporting this long continental drilling project
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