Causes and possible solutions to water resource conflicts in the Okavango River Basin: The case of Angola, Namibia and Botswana

doi:10.1016/j.pce.2004.09.015

Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C

Volume 29, Issues 15–18, 2004, Pages 1319-1326

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2004.09.015 Get rights and content

Abstract

This paper reviews available literature concerning water resources use in the Okavango River Basin (ORB). It describes a number of common arguments regarding possibilities for the emergence of violent conflict in and among Basin states, particularly those states party to the Okavango River Basin Commission (Okacom)—Angola, Botswana and Namibia. The paper presents data concerning present and future water demands and examines a number of formal, institutional steps taken by global and regional actors to facilitate sustainable development, natural resources management and peaceful cooperation in the Basin. Contrary to trends in much of the literature, the paper suggests that there is great scope for enhanced inter-state cooperation in the Basin. It argues that to achieve sustainable utilisation of water resources and avoid violent conflict in the ORB, an integrated management plan for the entire basin needs to be developed. In addition, each basin member-state should observe international and regional conventions and treaties governing the use of water resources when designing national water development projects that require the use of water from the ORB.

Introduction

River basins play a significant role in sustaining livelihoods of people living along them. In recent years, they have become a source of income derived from the utilisation of flora and fauna for tourism purposes. River basins are also converted into other land uses such as irrigation and for industrial development. Because of these land use activities, river basins have become the most threatened of all environmental resources (Brouwer et al., 2001). The Okavango River Basin (ORB) remains one of the least human-impacted basins in the African continent. However, mounting socio-economic pressures on the use of the basin by riparian states of Angola, Botswana and Namibia threaten to change its present character (Porto and Clover, 2003). In the long term, socio-economic pressures may result in irretrievable environmental breakdown and the consequent loss of domestic and global benefits (GEF, 2000).

The ORB provides an example of a transboundary system where human and ecosystem needs compete for scarce water supplies in an otherwise arid region (McCarthy and Ellery, 1998, Ashton and Neal, 2003). Historically, people everywhere have competed for natural resources needed to sustain their livelihoods (Buckles and Rusnak, 1999). Competition over natural resources such as water has the potential of leading to conflicts among users. The intensity of conflict over resources may vary from confusion and frustration among members of a community over poorly communicated development policies to violent clashes between groups over resource ownership rights and responsibilities (Kant and Cooke, 1999, Chenier et al., 1999, Suliman, 1999). In the ORB, conflicts have so far have centred on verbal disagreements particularly between Botswana and Namibia.

This paper assesses the likely causes and possible solutions of water resource conflicts in the Okavango River Basin. In doing so, it is guided by the following questions: What socio-economic factors contribute to or have the potential to cause water resource conflicts between ORB member states? What are the current and future levels of water demand and use in ORB states? What regional and international treaties and conventions exist to help minimise water resource conflicts between ORB states? In terms of organisational structure, Section 1 introduces the paper. Second 2 gives a geographical description of the ORB while Section 3 discusses the theoretical base of the paper. The fourth and main section of the paper deals with potentially problematic socio-economic and (present and future) water demand issues in Angola, Botswana and Namibia. The fifth section discusses some of the formal mechanisms in place to help foster water resource cooperation in the ORB. The sixth and last section concludes the paper.

Section snippets

Geographical description of the Okavango River Basin

The Okavango River Basin has its origins in the highlands of Angola where the Cuito and Cubango Rivers eventually unite to become the Okavango River near the boundary of Angola and Namibia. The river then flows across Namibia’s Caprivi Strip and finally drains in northwestern Botswana (Fig. 1).

In Botswana, the Okavango River flows into a collapsed section of the earth’s crust caused by tectonic activities forming a huge wetland that has come to be known as the Okavango Delta. The Okavango Delta

Sustainable development and natural resource conflicts

Sustainable development is commonly understood to mean utilisation and management of renewable resources for the benefit of today’s generations without compromising the ability of future generations to do the same (WCED, 1987). While acknowledging that the concept is not without controversy (Lele, 1991), it is argued here that ‘real’ development cannot be achieved unless strategies and practices are sustainable and consistent with environmental conservation as well as social values and

Socio-economic and ecological water needs

Many current and prospective socio-economic and ecological activities in Angola, Namibia and Botswana are commonly thought to hold conflict potential. As discussed below, this is due primarily to a combination of the transboundary nature of the resource, and the ecological profile of the river system.

Conventions, protocols and agreements

Sustainable use of the resources of the ORB are highly dependent on political co-operation between Angola, Namibia and Botswana. This is possible through regional and international water protocols and agreements on the use of water resources in the Basin. As shown below, there are a number of formal agreements in place which potentially form the basis for cooperative and sustainable resource use throughout the Basin. Much depends, however, on political will. Four key agreements are discussed:

Conclusion

Water demands are increasing in the ORB—for agriculture (particularly irrigation), industrialisation, urbanisation, hydropower generation, and tourism. Increased pressure on shared water resources usually causes disagreements and conflicts between riparian states when sustainable institutional arrangements and agreements are not in place. As a result, political cooperation between and among Basin States is necessary to promote long-term sustainability of the ORB and to minimise inter- and

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Causes and possible solutions to water resource conflicts in the Okavango River Basin: The case of Angola, Namibia and Botswana

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Geographical description of the Okavango River Basin

Sustainable development and natural resource conflicts

Socio-economic and ecological water needs

Conventions, protocols and agreements

Conclusion

World Development

The search for an equitable basis for water sharing in the Okavango River basin

An overview of key strategic issues in the Okavango Basin

Conflict and collaboration in natural resource management

Management of multi-purpose coastal wetlands: the norfolk and suffolk broads

Copan, Honduras: collaboration for identity, equity, and sustainability

Principles for the Utilisation of the Okavango Delta Ecosystem: Botswana

Biological Conservation

Jabalpur District, Madhya Pradesh, India: minimising conflict in joint forest management