ReviewPrior perceptual processing enhances the effect of emotional arousal on the neural correlates of memory retrieval
Introduction
It is well known that emotionally arousing events are better remembered than neutral events. This effect is modulated by the release of stress hormones that affect noradrenergic transmission in the basolateral amygdala and its interactions with the anterior medial temporal lobes, which are important for memory formation, consolidation, and/or retrieval operations (Dolcos et al., 2004, Kensinger, 2009, LaBar and Cabeza, 2006, McGaugh, 2004, Wolf, 2008). However, very little is known about the neural bases of cognitive factors known to modulate emotional memory, such as encoding orientations that determine how emotional information is processed.
One variable that may modulate the effect of emotional arousal on memory is the degree to which perceptual properties of stimuli or events are attended or processed. A fundamental idea in memory research is that semantic processing leads to better memory than perceptual processing (the levels-of-processing effect, or LOP) (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). However, the vast majority of the studies showing the LOP effect have used affectively neutral information (Craik, 2002), and it is unclear if the effect generalizes to emotional information. In fact, studies have shown that attending to and processing perceptual, rather than semantic, aspects of incoming information tends to boost emotional memory (Jay et al., 2008, Reber et al., 1994, Ritchey et al., 2011). For instance, Reber et al. (1994) found that whereas recall of neutral words showed the standard LOP effect, such that performance was higher for semantic than perceptual processing, recall of emotional words showed a “reverse LOP effect,” wherein performance was higher for perceptual than semantic processing. More generally, mounting evidence from different literatures and methodological techniques suggests a strong link between emotional memory and perceptual processing, particularly for negative emotions. For example, vivid visual imagery of negative events is frequently reported by patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (Hackmann & Holmes, 2004). In addition, emotional memories are often subjectively rated as more vivid (e.g., Kensinger and Corkin, 2003, Ochsner, 2000) and may contain sensory details absent in neutral memories (Doerksen & Shimamura, 2001). In the domain of implicit memory, emotion has been shown to enhance perceptual (LaBar et al., 2005) but not conceptual (Ramponi, Handelsman, & Barnard, 2010) priming effects. Finally, research on affect labeling (e.g., Lieberman et al., 2007) has shown that activity in emotion-related limbic regions is reduced when people attend to or label the semantic category or emotional pictures, suggesting that semantic encoding orientations may actually dampen emotional experience.
The neural mechanisms whereby perceptual processing enhances emotional memory are unclear. There is evidence that emotion enhances visual cortex activity (Bradley et al., 2003, Lang et al., 1998, Sabatinelli et al., 2007, Simpson et al., 2000), most likely via feedback projections from the amygdala to visual cortex (Amaral et al., 2003, Anderson and Phelps, 2001). However, neural evidence of the link between perceptual processing and emotional memory is scarce and available only for encoding. One recent fMRI study (Todd, Talmi, Schmitz, Susskind, & Anderson, 2012) found that visual noise overlaid on scenes was rated as less noisy when the scenes were emotional, an effect that was linked to activations in the amygdala and occipital cortex. Importantly, these activations also predicted memory vividness ratings on a recognition test 1 week later (see also Todd, Schmitz, Susskind, & Anderson, 2013). In another study (Kensinger, Garoff-Eaton, & Schacter, 2007), right amygdalar activity during object encoding predicted the ability to distinguish between identical and visually similar objects during retrieval. Finally, Ritchey et al. (2011) found that right amygdala activity predicted subsequent emotional memory to a greater extent when pictures were perceptually- rather than semantically-encoded.
Although the foregoing studies established preliminary links between perceptual processing and emotional memory encoding, it is an open question whether prior perceptual processing enhances the neural mechanisms of emotional memory during retrieval. Because perceptual processing occurs during encoding, any effect on retrieval mechanisms would have to be mediated by the nature of memory representations. That is, a difference in amygdalar activity as a function of prior processing strategy cannot be explained by processes elicited by the retrieval cue, but rather has to be mediated by the nature of the memory representations stored during perceptual processing and recovered during retrieval. It is currently uncertain how perceptual processing applied during memory formation will affect neural activations that occur during later emotional retrieval.
A second open question is whether prior perceptual processing enhances the quality of emotional memories. In addition to quantitative differences in memory strength, episodic memory researchers distinguish two qualitatively different forms of memory: recollection and familiarity (for review, see Yonelinas, 2002). Recollection refers to remembering a past event together with its associated contextual details, whereas familiarity refers to knowing that the event occurred in the past in the absence of contextual details. Several studies have shown that emotion tends to enhance recollection rather than familiarity (Dougal et al., 2007, Ochsner, 2000, Sharot et al., 2007). Dolcos, LaBar, and Cabeza (2005) found that, during retrieval, the emotion-induced enhancement of recollection was mediated by increased activity in the amygdala and the hippocampus. It is unknown, however, how the mechanisms of emotional recollection are modulated by prior perceptual processing.
Finally, a third open question is whether the enhancing effects of prior perceptual processing on emotional memory are mediated by localized changes in the amygdala or whether they also involve changes in the interactions between the amygdala and the regions mediating successful memory operations. In fMRI studies of recognition memory, successful retrieval has been associated with increased activations in hippocampus (e.g., Buckner and Wheeler, 2001, Dobbins et al., 2003), and the enhancing effects of emotion on memory have been linked to increases in amygdalar activity with the hippocampus (Dolcos et al., 2005). In non-memory studies, as noted above, emotional effects on visual processing have been linked with feedback projections from the amygdala to visual cortex (Amaral et al., 2003, Anderson and Phelps, 2001). However, it is currently uncertain how prior perceptual processing enhances amygdalar interactions with medial temporal and other cortical regions associated with memory success. One possibility is that perceptual processing during encoding may draw attention to the salient features of the emotional materials, resulting in a richer, more detailed memory trace with more arousal attached to it. As such, when participants see that picture again, the retrieved memory may be more likely to have retained that vividness and arousal and re-engage the amygdala, MTL and visual cortices.
To investigate these three questions, we used the paradigm illustrated by Fig. 1. Emotional and neutral scenes were incidentally encoded under instructions to attend to either semantic or perceptual features during scene viewing. Following each scene, participants were asked to make an arousal rating and to answer a question specific to perceptual or the semantic condition. Two days later, memory for the scenes was tested with a task in which participants rated memory strength and indicated the occurrence of recollection (retrieval of contextual details).
The fMRI analyses focused on the three questions mentioned above. First, to investigate whether prior perceptual processing modulates the neural mechanisms of emotional memory strength, we used participants’ rating of memory strength as a parametric regressor and identified regions where activity increased as a function of emotional memory success. On the basis of the aforementioned evidence linking the amygdala to emotion-induced memory retrieval enhancement (Buchanan, 2007) and effects of perceptual processing on emotional encoding (Ritchey et al., 2011, Todd et al., 2012) we predicted the amygdalar activity associated with emotional memory strength would be enhanced by prior perceptual processing. Second, to investigate whether prior perceptual processing enhances the neural mechanisms of emotional recollection, we compared activity for trials eliciting recollection to trials eliciting strong memories without recollection. On the basis of evidence linking emotional recollection to the amygdala and the hippocampus (Dolcos et al., 2005), we predicted that amygdalar and hippocampal activity associated with emotional recollection would be enhanced by prior perceptual processing. Finally, to investigate whether prior perceptual processing enhances amygdalar interactions with medial temporal and other cortical regions, we used the amygdala as a seed in a functional connectivity analyses. We predicted that prior perceptual processing would enhance amygdalar connectivity with regions strongly associated with retrieval success, such as hippocampal/parahippocampal regions, visual cortex, and ventral parietal cortex.
Section snippets
Participants
Twenty-one young adults participated in the study. All participants were right-handed, native English speakers with no history of psychiatric or neurological illness. Participants provided written informed consent in accordance with the Institutional Review Board of Duke University Medical Center. One participant was excluded for excessive head motion and one was excluded for problems with image acquisition, leaving data from 19 participants included in analysis (9 female; ages 18–29, m = 23.0, SD
Behavioral results
All behavioral results were reported in a previous paper (Ritchey et al., 2011); for convenience only, we reiterate them here. Average arousal ratings at encoding were entered into a repeated-measures ANOVA with factors of emotion (negative, neutral, positive) and task (semantic, perceptual). There was a significant main effect of emotion, F(2, 38) = 206.31, p < .001, . Follow-up tests revealed that negative pictures were rated as more arousing than neutral, F(1, 19) = 335.38, p < .001, or
Discussion
We investigated neural activations during retrieval of emotional and neutral pictures, which were incidentally encoded 2 days prior under instructions to focus on either perceptual or semantic properties. The study yielded three main findings. First, relative to prior semantic processing, prior perceptual processing enhanced neural activity related to memory strength in the right amygdala for emotional but not neutral pictures. This finding was replicated when pictures were not classified as
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health Grant Nos. NS41328, AG23770, and AG19731. M.R. was supported by National Research Service Award Grant no. F31MH085384 and I.D. was supported by National Research Service Award no. F32AG038298.
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