14C dates as demographic proxies in Neolithisation models of northwestern Europe: a critical assessment using Belgium and northeast France as a case-study
Introduction
The use of radiocarbon dates as proxies for identifying prehistoric population dynamics has increased considerably over the last decade. In numerous studies summed relative probability calculations of calibrated radiocarbon dates have been used to model population fluctuations through time (Gamble et al., 2005, Gkiasta et al., 2003, Kuzmin and Keates, 2005, Riede, 2008, Shennan and Edinborough, 2007, Whitehouse et al., 2014). Using the rationale that larger populations generate more radiocarbon samples, peaks in the summed probability curves are interpreted as evidence for population increases while dips correspond with decreasing human activity. Some of these studies have focused on the transition between the Mesolithic and Neolithic in NW Europe (Belgium, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, and the UK), which is known as the period of Neolithisation (Collard et al., 2010; Gkiasta et al., 2003, Shennan and Edinborough, 2007, Shennan, 2009, Shennan et al., 2013). The main conclusions of these studies based solely on radiocarbon evidence are threefold. First, an important population decline through the course of the Mesolithic is postulated, which culminated in remarkably low population density among Late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. The development of a dense forest cover resulting in decreased animal population densities has been proposed as a possible explanation for this demographic pattern (Shennan, 2009, 343). Second, a drastic population increase is observed at the onset of the (Early) Neolithic, corresponding with the appearance of the Linearbandkeramik (LBK Culture) in Germany, Poland, Belgium, and the Netherlands around the middle of the 6th millennium cal BC, as well as during the Trichterbecherkultur (TRB Culture) in Denmark at the start of the 4th millennium cal BC. Finally, a population crash of enormous magnitude is postulated right after the disappearance of the LBK, leading to low population levels during the Middle Neolithic period between ca. 5000 and 3500 cal BC. Growing intergroup hostilities and warfare are suggested as the main causes of this marked population decline (Shennan, 2009, 349).
In this paper we intend to challenge these assumptions using a multiproxy rather than a single proxy approach as suggested by Williams (2012). This multiproxy approach will be carried out using two case-study datasets. The first comes from Belgium and is comprised of 571 critically filtered, reliable radiocarbon dates from the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods (Crombé and Van Strydonck, 2004). The second case-study comes from the adjacent Moselle river valley in northeast France, where extensive rescue excavations have provided a clear picture of the potential biases encountered by research-based approaches to demographic change during the Neolithisation process.
Section snippets
Materials and methods
The dataset from Belgium includes all radiocarbon dates closely associated with Mesolithic (ca. 9500–6500/5500 14C BP) and Neolithic sites (6500/5500–3700 14C BP), including both settlement and burial sites. Most dates have been compiled from existing published or online databases, such as the one from the Radiocarbon Laboratories of the Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage in Brussels (http://www.kikirpa.be/EN/52/353/Datering+C14.htm) and Louvain-la-Neuve (Gilot, 1997), as well as published
Results
At face value the obtained summed probability distribution of radiocarbon dates from the Belgian Mesolithic and Neolithic (Fig. 2) presents the same general trends as for Germany, Poland and the Netherlands. The curve starts with a sharp drop in radiocarbon dates from the Early (9th millennium cal BC) to the Late Mesolithic (7th–6th millennium cal BC). However, this is partly distorted due to intense dating of one specific site, the Early Mesolithic site of Verrebroek “Dok” (Crombé et al., 2006
Population decline during the Mesolithic?
The Mesolithic is particularly well studied in Belgium, especially in the sandy lowlands (Crombé, 1998, Gob, 1981, Vermeersch, 1990). More than a century of research, including field-walking of arable grounds, corings in sealed areas (river floodplains, coastal areas) and excavations has led to the discovery of many hundreds of Mesolithic settlement sites. The data from a ca. 3300 km2 area situated in the northwestern part of Belgium, known as the lowland region of Sandy Flanders, has recently
Conclusions
Although fluctuations in human population must have occurred in the Mesolithic and Neolithic, e.g. in response to changing climate and environment or as a result of conflict, diseases or catastrophic events (eruptions, tsunami, earthquakes etc), we do not believe that these can be deduced from the radiocarbon evidence just by summing all dates and looking at its distribution. Following Williams (2012) we are convinced that a single proxy approach like this is not recommendable; instead
Acknowledgment
We are very grateful to Prof. R. Kelly and Dr. N. Naudinot for inviting us to contribute to this special issue. Also we would like to thank Dr. I. Jadin for giving us permission to include Fig. 4B and C in our paper.
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