Research ArticleContributions of ectoparasite studies in archaeology with two examples from the North Atlantic region
Graphical abstract
Introduction
Archaeoentomology is a sub-discipline of environmental archaeology that focuses on the study of insect remains preserved in archaeological sediments. As it has been demonstrated that most insects did not evolve over the last 2 million years, most of the species identified from ancient deposits still exist today (Coope, 1978, Elias, 2010). The archaeoentomological approach is thus based on using the habitat preferences of species recovered from ancient deposits to infer past ecological conditions (see Kenward, 1978). This approach, initially used for palaeoecological studies (Coope, 1959), was first applied to archaeological investigations of sites in the United Kingdom (e.g. Coope and Osborne, 1968, Osborne, 1969). Such studies have since been expanded to others parts of the world (e.g. Andrieu-Ponel et al., 2000, Bain, 2001, Bain and King, 2011, Böcher and Fredskild, 1993, Buckland et al., 1983, Buckland et al., 1992, Hall and Kenward, 1990, Hellqvist, 1996, Kenward and Hall, 1995, Martinson et al., 2003, Panagiotakopulu et al., 2007, Panagiotakopulu et al., 2009, Ponel et al., 2000).
Beetles (Coleoptera) are the most commonly studied insects in archaeology, largely due to their hardened exoskeletons that make them resistant to post-burial decay. Remains of other insects and arthropods may also be preserved in archaeological sediment; especially in waterlogged, anoxic, frozen or arid conditions (Elias, 2010). The archaeoentomological record commonly includes not only mites (Acari) (e.g. Cheptow-Lusty et al., 2007, Schelvis, 1997) and flies (Diptera) (e.g. Panagiotakopulu, 2004a, Skidmore, 1996), but also ectoparasites, a group of parasites that live on the body of their hosts (Markell et al., 1999). The term ‘ectoparasite’ refers to an ecological rather than taxonomic group, composed of insects, arachnids and crustacean species that live as adults on or in close proximity to the skin, the fur or the feathers of vertebrate animals from which they derive their food (Hopla et al., 1994, Marshall, 1981). This paper presents an overview of the contributions of studies of ectoparasites to various archaeological questions. After a discussion of the current body of research on archaeological ectoparasites, two original case studies are presented. The first concerns the identification of an ‘entomological signature’ for activities in Iceland related to eiderdown production using bird fleas, while the second uses the spatial distribution of lice to examine the hygienic practices of Polar Inuits in Greenland.
Section snippets
Ectoparasites in archaeology: summary of the evidence
The human ectoparasites most commonly recovered from archaeological deposits include the human louse Pediculus humanus Linnaeus and the human flea Pulex irritans Linnaeus (e.g. Bain, 2004, Buckland and Sadler, 1989, Kenward, 2009, Mumcuoglu, 2008). The former was identified from many sites located in the Near East (e.g. Fletcher, 1994, Mumcuoglu and Zias, 1988); Europe (e.g. Girling, 1984, Hall and Kenward, 1990, Kenward and Hall, 1995, Schelvis, 1994), the North Atlantic Islands (e.g. Amorosi
Case study 1: Bird fleas as indicators of eiderdown residues and production sites in Iceland
The analysis of insect remains preserved in the floors of a 19th-century turf house at Vatnsfjörður, in northwest Iceland (Fig. 1) recovered 159 fleas (Fig. 2a) from a single room, interpreted as a cellar. The fleas were not identified to species level at the time of the initial publication of results (Forbes et al., 2010), but subsequent research (Forbes, 2013) identified most specimens to the Ceratophyllidae family (Traub et al., 1983), which includes species feeding on the blood of birds and
Case study 2: Lice as indicators of practices related to hygiene in historic northwest Greenland
Conflicting descriptions concerning the hygiene of Polar Inuits or Inughuit were published at the turn of the last century. European and American explorers in the Arctic mention numerous parasites and the poor hygiene of these northern peoples (Hayes and Shaw, 1860, Henson and Peary, 1912, Kane, 1856, M’Dougall, 1857, Peary, 1898, Peary and Peary, 1893, Ross, 1819, Vaughan, 1991). Contrastingly, anthropologists and ethnologists such as Knud Rasmussen and Erik Holtved describe delousing as a
Conclusion
The potential for the study of ectoparasitic arthropods recovered from archaeological sites has been previously demonstrated by archaeoentomologists around the world. Their research suggests that the study of ectoparasites allows for an appreciation of past hygiene and sanitary conditions, while also providing means to identify domestic areas within houses, the species of domestic animals that were present on a site, and traces of particular activities such as delousing and wool processing. Two
Acknowledgements
Research conducted on Icelandic bird fleas was done as part of a doctoral project (VF) funded by the Commonwealth Scholarships Commission. The Research Budget of the Department of Archaeology at the University of Aberdeen provided additional funding for the fieldwork. This work was conducted under the supervision of Dr. Karen Milek and Dr. Andrew J. Dugmore, to whom thanks are also due. Residents at Æðey and Vatnsfjörður, who provided access to the sites and buildings, as well as Dr. Richard
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2020, Journal of Archaeological ScienceCitation Excerpt :The identification and analysis of ectoparasites in archaeological contexts is a fascinating facet in the study of human prehistory, as it speaks to the health and quality of life of ancient people and/or the animals with which they interacted, as well as the environment in which they lived. The most commonly recovered archaeological ectoparasites are fleas, lice, and bed bugs (for a comprehensive review, see Forbes et al., [2013]). However, the recovery of ticks in these contexts is relatively rare.
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2015, Journal of Archaeological ScienceCitation Excerpt :However, the only site where large numbers of bird fleas were recovered from archaeological layers is Vatnsfjörður, where late 19th and early 20th century deposits produced nearly 200 specimens (Forbes et al., 2010). Thanks to the excellent preservation conditions of organics in these sediments, many flea abdomens were found and it was possible to confidently identify 58 of these to C. garei, the duck flea (Forbes, 2013; Forbes et al., 2013). The recovery of duck fleas at Vatnsfjörður not only allowed the first identification of eiderdown production on an archaeological site, but also demonstrated that where suitable preservation conditions occur, bird flea abdomens and genitalia can be preserved and identified.
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2015, Advances in ParasitologyCitation Excerpt :These have been recovered from soil sediment, textiles, mummies and combs. Head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis), body lice (Pediculus humanus corporis) and crab/pubic lice (Phthirus pubis) have been found in countries such as Britain, Iceland, Greenland, the Netherlands and Italy (Kenward, 2001; Mumcuoglu, 2008; Fornaciari et al., 2009; Forbes et al., 2013). Fleas (Pulex irritans) were also widespread and have been recovered from excavations in Britain, Iceland, Ireland, France, Greenland and the Netherlands (Buckland et al., 1998; Kenward and Hall, 1995; Sadler, 1990; Schelvis, 1994; Yvinec et al., 2000).
Insects, activity areas and turf buildings' interiors: An ethno-archaeoentomological case study from 19th to early 20th-century verá, northeast Iceland
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