Subcretionary tectonics: Linking variability in the expression of subduction along the Cascadia forearc
Graphical abstract
Introduction
The modern Cascadia margin is a ∼1200 km long subduction zone along the northwestern coast of North America that has been operating since the accretion of the Siletzia terrane at ∼50 Ma (Wells et al., 2014). This margin is characterized by the subduction of the young oceanic lithosphere of the Juan de Fuca plate (5–10 Myr at the trench) at slow-to-intermediate convergence rates (between 30 and 42 mm/yr) in a northeasterly direction (Fig. 1) (Wilson, 2002). The combination of the young oceanic lithosphere and low variations in convergence rates makes Cascadia one of the endmember examples of a warm subduction system (van Keken et al., 2011). This results in a significant amount of fluid release from the subducting lithosphere starting at relatively shallow depths (∼40 km; Condit et al., 2020), which will affect the seismogenic and rheological characteristics of the plate interface. While significant variations in fluid-mediated subduction processes along the Cascadia forearc are observed, as seen in variable slow-slip recurrence intervals (Brudzinski and Allen, 2007), non-volcanic tremor (NVT) density, and intraslab seismicity (McCrory et al., 2012), the predicted depth of dehydration appears relatively invariant along-strike based on first-order characteristics of the subducting slab (Condit et al., 2020), making this an unlikely cause of the variation in seismogenic behavior. Other observations also spatially correlate with the seismogenic behavior of the margin, which may lend insight into controls on this variation. These include crustal seismicity (Bostock et al., 2019), gravity and magnetic fields (Blakely et al., 2005), uplift and erosion rates (Balco et al., 2013; Burgette et al., 2009), topography, slab morphology (McCrory et al., 2012), intraslab deviatoric stresses (Wada et al., 2010), and interface locking (Li et al., 2018; Schmalzle et al., 2014) (Fig. 1), and are also reflected in the seismic properties of the margin, such as forearc Rayleigh wave phase and crustal shear-wave velocities (Delph et al., 2018; Janiszewski et al., 2019; Porritt et al., 2011), seismic attenuation (Littel et al., 2018), and subslab mantle structure (Bodmer et al., 2018). The significant correlations between these different observations have proven difficult to link in a mechanistic way due to their different temporal and spatial scales. However, understanding these linkages is necessary to decipher the governing factors that lead to along-strike variations in subduction characteristics not only along the Cascadia forearc, but along other subduction margins as well.
Recent studies posit the dominant controlling mechanism behind the distribution of NVT in Cascadia is related to either the properties of the overriding or downgoing plate. For instance, NVT distribution has been related to overriding plate structure through variations in either: 1) the permeability of the overriding crust due to the presence of vertically extensive forearc faulting (Wells et al., 2017), or 2) the strength of the overriding plate implied from surface geology (Fig. 1A; Brudzinski and Allen, 2007). While these explanations likely contribute to distribution of NVT and could plausibly be related to variations in topography and Bouguer gravity along the margin, it is unclear how it would contribute to other phenomena that correlate with NVT, such as intraslab seismicity (Fig. 1B) and upper mantle velocity structure (Bodmer et al., 2018). Alternatively, buoyancy variations in the upper mantle below the subducting oceanic lithosphere have been invoked as the primary control on plate locking, and perhaps also uplift, and exhumation, by controlling slab curvature and thereby modulating changes in both along-strike and down-dip friction of the interface (Bodmer et al., 2018, 2020). This hypothesis could also be linked with intraslab seismicity, but its connection with variations in NVT and overriding crustal characteristics, such as Bouguer gravity variations, crustal seismic properties, or surface geology, are difficult to explain. Delph et al. (2018) attempted to link slab structure with NVT distribution by inferring that intraslab seismicity reflected permeability changes within the downgoing slab, leading to variable fluid release from the downgoing slab. The regions of high NVT density also coincided with thick low velocity zones interpreted as underplated sedimentary packages below the forearc, perhaps resulting from intrinsic vertical impermeability of the material. However, no controlling mechanism for the variable amounts of underplating was presented.
In this study, we provide plausible mechanistic linkages between the seismic structure of the Cascadia margin and other margin characteristics. We leverage the existing dense station distribution along with a recently published 3D shear-wave velocity model (Delph et al., 2018) and a new variable Vp/Vs ratio crustal model derived from local seismicity to convert P-wave receiver functions to depth. The resulting 3D velocity-corrected discontinuity model better delineates the seismic discontinuity structure of the Cascadia margin and allows for the systematic estimation of crustal thickness, which has proven difficult in previous studies due to the complexity of the crust-mantle transition in subduction zones (e.g., Bostock, 2013). This new 3D discontinuity model in combination with our previously computed 3D model of shear-wave velocities allows us to investigate how the seismic structure of the margin relates to lateral variations in subduction characteristics.
Section snippets
Methods
Receiver functions are commonly used to locate the crust-mantle transition and delineate the discontinuity structure beneath a region, as their peaks and troughs directly correspond to velocity increases and decreases in the Earth. However, delineating the crust-mantle transition in Cascadia has been challenging due to: 1) the difficulty of differentiating between the base of the overriding crust and the downgoing plate's crust in the forearc where they are in contact, as they are both
Seismic model comparisons and crustal thickness
The 3D corrected ACCP model highlights the discontinuity structure of the forearc to arc (Fig. 5B–D), and all depths in the model are relative to sea level. The main features include: 1) a strong, positive east-dipping arrival along the majority of the margin starting at about 20 km depth near the coast and extending to the base of the model, 2) a generally weak positive arrival between the forearc high topography and the volcanic arc, and 3) a relatively shallow (∼30–35 km depth), strong,
Forearc subcretion
The thickest overriding plate crust is generally found near the forearc mantle corner along the Cascadia margin, reaching up to ∼50 km and thinning in both the seaward and landward directions (Fig. 5A). This observation is consistent with the findings of smaller-scale studies (Ramachandran et al., 2006; Preston et al., 2003; Stanley et al., 1999; Calvert et al., 2006), and has been explained by basal accretion and structural duplexing within crustal material near the base of the overriding
Conclusion
Significant lateral variations in seismicity and other geophysical observations along the Cascadia forearc cannot be explained by variations in only the overriding or downgoing plate. To better understand how these variations are linked to the seismic structure of the margin, we applied a 3D variable Vp/Vs ratio velocity model correction to P-wave radial receiver functions to create a model of discontinuity structure for the Cascadia margin. When interpreted alongside a recently published
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Jonathan R. Delph: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Amanda M. Thomas: Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Alan Levander: Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that influenced this research.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by NSF #1848302. This manuscript benefitted from constructive reviews by Andrew Calvert and Rob Porritt as well as an informal review by Doug Toomey. The authors want to thank Tyler Newton for sharing tide gauge and GPS decadal uplift rate measurements, Miles Bodmer for sharing his tomographic model, Armel Menant for sharing his thermomechanical model, Shaoyang Li and Gina Schmalzle for the locking model predictions, and Michael Bostock and Alexandre Plourde for LFE P
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