Locally manufactured wind power technology for sustainable rural electrification
Highlights
► Local manufacture of wind turbines often overlooked for rural electrification. ► Flexible to adapt to local context and benefits local economy, capacity and supply chain. ► Development of technology discussed and 3 case studies of dissemination analysed. ► Critical factors: institutional support, system level planning, continuity of supply. ► Dissemination successful in Inner Mongolia; work continues elsewhere.
Introduction
Globally, 1.4 billion people have no access to electricity, 85% of whom live in rural areas (UN AGECC, 2010, IEA, 2010). Electricity is the most versatile energy carrier and the link between electricity use and human development is clear. Fig. 1 demonstrates that the first few kilowatt-hours (kWhs) of electricity have the biggest impact on quality of life; this fact alone can justify the increased cost of bringing electricity to remote areas. Among the many benefits of electrification, the most prevalent is electric lighting (Practical Action, 2010). Open flame kerosene lamps are widely used throughout the developing world due to their availability and low initial purchase cost (Foster et al., 2000), however not only are they dangerous (Peck et al., 2008), but also costly per unit of light output (Foster et al., 2000) and inefficient (Practical Action, 2010).
Whilst electricity supply networks will continue to expand, there is growing interest in improving electricity access in remote regions of the developing world via decentralised renewable energy systems (Wilkins, 2002, GNESD, 2006, Developing Renewables, 2008). Such systems are capable of providing a flexible, locally controllable and consistent supply of electricity that will allow for future expansion in energy use as quality of life increases (GNESD, 2006). On a global scale, the possibility of a low-carbon development pathway adds further weight to the argument. There is a multitude of different technologies on offer, however the three most widely available renewable energy resources are the sun, the wind and flowing rivers. As a result, decentralised energy technologies can offer many rural communities the potential to take control of their own energy supply. Of course, these resources also exist in urban areas, however higher population densities mean that as long as suitable infrastructure exists, the most economical method for urban electricity distribution is generally via a central grid (represented by a 500 MW coal-fired plant in Fig. 2). This is not the case in remote areas, where it is often impractical for governments and unprofitable for private energy companies to build long, expensive and inefficient transmission lines to connect the many scattered and impoverished communities. Here, decentralised generation is the only practical option.
As a result, diesel generators are often used in stand-alone power systems because of their low initial purchase costs, modularity and ease of installation. However the ongoing need for fuel distribution, rising fossil fuel prices, environmental contamination and the associated health risks mean that they are not the most economically, socially or ecologically sustainable option. The Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP, 2007) estimated the levelised cost of energy for various power generation technologies using a standard methodology that compares the total costs (initial capital, operation and maintenance and where applicable, fuel, transmission and distribution) to the total energy generated over the predicted lifetime of the technology. All costs are discounted to the base year, and the resulting figure is the value at which electricity would have to be sold at in order to break even. The results of the analysis seen in Fig. 2 show that economically, renewables are undoubtedly the best option for small-scale distributed power generation (World Bank, 2008).
The use of micro-hydro and photovoltaics (PVs) for rural electrification is already well established (Wilkins, 2002); however these technologies are not appropriate in all local contexts. For example, a suitable watercourse is not always available and although prices continue to fall, PVs are often still prohibitively expensive. As will be discussed later, the successful dissemination of wind power technology in Inner Mongolia has shown that where a reasonable wind resource is available, wind power can provide a cost-effective solution to rural electrification (Batchelor et al., 1999). Moreover, as will be demonstrated below, the opportunity to locally manufacture micro-wind turbines brings a number of additional benefits.
Section snippets
Local manufacture of micro-wind turbines
Khennas et al. (2008) state that manufacturing micro-wind turbines locally not only has the potential to boost the local economy and build local capacity, but it can also help create a resilient energy system through the creation of a strong supply chain for spare parts (accompanied by trained local tradesmen to perform repairs). In addition, by involving community members in the construction and installation phases, local manufacture can increase the likelihood of successful knowledge transfer
Case studies of local wind turbine manufacture
One of the key elements emphasised throughout this paper is the need to consider locally manufactured wind power as a socially embedded technology. This implies that any technological decision will need to be made within the context of the availability of skills, knowledge and materials, as well as the ability to pay, needs of the community and the state of other existing infrastructure in a particular locality. The role of intermediaries such as NGOs, government and research institutions and
Conclusion
The aim of this paper has been to examine the potential contribution of wind power to meet the needs of remote communities with limited or no access to electricity using locally manufactured technology. The central argument is that access to electricity is an essential element of development and that decentralised renewable solutions are required on technical, economic, social and ecological grounds. The paper has identified the key generic elements of an effective locally manufactured wind
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the UK Research Council's (UKRC) Energy for a Low Carbon Future Program and has been conducted as part of the E-Futures Doctoral Training Centre (DTC) at the University of Sheffield, UK. The authors would also like to thank all those who have reviewed and contributed to this paper for their valuable assistance.
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