The impact of tourism and personal leisure transport on coastal environments: A review
Introduction
Mass tourism is a modern phenomenon, stemming primarily from the introduction of personal vehicles and motorized mass transport from the mid-19th Century onwards, accelerating particularly after 1945 with the development of passenger airlines. Coastal resorts became increasingly popular as tourist destinations; the benefits of the sea air, sun, water, seafood, beaches, scenic views were the initial attraction. The advent of the availability of new destinations, more adventurous activities and a desire to observe wildlife (birds, whales, corals, etc.) mean that coastal resorts still attract the greatest percentage of tourists every year; 63% of European holidaymakers prefer the coast (EC, 1998). Initially, mass tourism was a short-range phenomenon largely within nation states and, although many tourist areas still get most of their visitors from within the state, mass tourism is now global with tourists from developed countries visiting almost all parts of the globe. Worldwide the number of international arrivals (i.e. arrivals from outside the country) has shown a steady increase from 25 million in 1950 to over 700 million in 2002, corresponding to an average annual growth rate of 6.6% and it is estimated that by 2020 there will be 350 million tourists visiting the Mediterranean coastal region alone (WTO, 2004). This substantially underestimates the total extent of tourism as it does not include long and short-distance tourism within countries (Burger, 2002), that is still dominant in many developed countries (e.g. USA).
The greatest ecological threats that mass tourism poses undoubtedly lie in the infrastructure and transport arrangements required to support it, particularly in situations where the numbers of tourists are subject to little control. Physical development of resorts, consumption of fuel by buildings, aircraft, trains, buses, taxis and cars, overuse of water resources, pollution by vehicle emissions, sewage and litter all contribute to substantial, often irreversible, environmental degradation, as well as to dramatic social consequences. However, increasing prosperity in developed countries has also created a worldwide demand for individual leisure transport, from simple walking and swimming to modern phenomena such as use of off-road vehicles (ORVs), self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA), personal watercraft (PWCs) and kitebuggies. Many of these individual activities have considerable ecological effects in coastal areas but have tended to be considered independently despite having features in common.
Travel and tourism together are worth around US$ 3.5 trillion per annum and employed 200 million people at the end of the 20th Century. Many developing countries gain significant (sometimes dominant) income from the trade. This is particularly true of islands or countries with substantial coastal tourism: in these cases tourism is often a major proportion of the gross domestic project – Caribbean countries are four times more dependent on tourism than any other area in the world (Gormsen, 1997).
Tourism brings economic benefits to countries, but there are usually substantial socio-economic and environmental costs associated with it. Such costs can affect larger areas that superficially appear more resilient (e.g. Algarve, Portugal) and can be overwhelming for small island resorts. Holder (1988) postulated the ‘self-destruct theory of tourism’. This theory states that an attractive natural place may become developed for an upscale exclusive market wanting low-density settlement and willing to pay top prices. Soon other developers move in and competition develops. In order to fill rooms, rates are lowered, standards are proportionately lowered and the place becomes a destination for mass tourism. The elite move on to unspoiled areas. A cogent and cautionary account (Wiese, 1996) of irreversible environmental and socio-economic degradation on the island of Cancún (Mexico) is a good illustration of this phenomenon. Cancún Island is 17 km long and 100–400 m wide with an enclosed shallow mangrove lined lagoon that, before development, held a variety of marine life and was an important nesting site for seabirds and sea turtles. There were several openings to the lagoon. Thousands of unskilled workers moved into the area. Quarries were developed and causeways constructed linking the island to the mainland and restricting the flow of fresh water into the lagoon. Sections of the lagoon were filled in for golf courses and marinas and amusement parks were built. Sewage treatment and the disposal of other wastes became major problems; eventually the exhausted quarries were used as rubbish dumps, polluting the groundwater supplies. After hurricane Gilbert hit Cancún in 1988, tourists were reluctant to return. Hotels reduced their prices and tourist arrivals increased, but these were more budget conscious and unwilling to spend extra money. The income for the country and the local people has been considerably reduced. Somewhat ironically, the hotel complexes of that island were chosen recently (2004) as a suitable site for a World Trade Organisation summit for action against hunger and poverty.
Full consideration of the global environmental impact of tourism (including the worrying contribution of air transport to climate change) is not within the remit of this review, which is concerned only with coastal habitats. The review is divided into two sections. The first is concerned with the effects of various aspects of mass tourism and related transport infrastructure on coastal ecosystems. The second section considers the impact of different types of personal leisure transport on the coastal environment. Both sections draw together material not previously handled holistically. In writing the review the authors have necessarily had to rely to an unusual extent on ‘grey’ literature (i.e. limited-circulation reports and web-disseminated material). This reflects the sustained lack of financial support for rigorous scientific study of the environmental effects of tourism and transport.
Section snippets
Coastal transport infrastructure
Tourist resorts require effective transport links. The explosion of car- and coach-based tourism in the 20th Century contributed heavily to the development of extensive road networks throughout the developed world, increasing habitat loss to tarmac and augmenting habitat fragmentation. Many coastal roads were built simply to connect resorts and sight-seeing opportunities. Tourist resorts are also generally characterised by extensive car-parking facilities, taking yet more land, particularly in
Swimming and surfing
Swimming and surfing are amongst the most innocuous of pastimes in themselves, though they usually require a substantial coastal tourist infrastructure to support them. However, in some countries, notably Australia and the USA, the installation of shark netting off popular swimming beaches has reduced numbers of rays, dolphins and turtles due to entanglement.
Surfing was originally a largely warm-water activity, but the technology and marketing of wet suits have improved over the last 20 years
Discussion
Tourism is now the largest single economic sector in the world. Impacts of leisure transport and tourism on the coastal environment are considerable, have increased (and are currently scheduled to continue increasing) in non-linear fashion, and are extremely difficult to manage or limit. Mass coastal tourism has developed exponentially and sustains a complex web of manufacturing and service industries, ranging from multinational aerospace manufacturers to individual food sellers. Vested
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Higher Education Authority of Ireland for financial support in the form of a PRLI Cycle 3 grant awarded to us for research scholarship under the heading ‘Ecology of Transport’. They also thank Dr Joanna Burger and an anonymous referee for constructive criticism of an earlier version of the manuscript.
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