The identification, implementation, and evaluation of critical user interface design features of computer-assisted instruction programs in mathematics for students with learning disabilities

Abstract

Critical user interface design features of computer-assisted instruction programs in mathematics for students with learning disabilities and corresponding implementation guidelines were identified in this study. Based on the identified features and guidelines, a multimedia computer-assisted instruction program, ‘Math Explorer’, which delivers addition and subtraction word problem-solving instruction for students with learning disabilities at the early elementary level, was designed and developed. Lastly, usability testing was conducted to assess whether Math Explorer was well-designed in terms of the interface for students with learning disabilities. Given the results of the usability testing, this study corroborated the fact that the critical user interface design features and guidelines in mathematics computer-assisted instruction programs would be essential for facilitating the mathematical learning of students with learning disabilities. Implications for practice and future research were discussed.

Introduction

With the advanced technology of the past decade, researchers in the field of special education have made efforts to incorporate technology into the instructional curriculum for students with a wide range of disabilities in order to enhance their learning outcomes in an effective and efficient way (Ferretti and Okolo, 1996, Torgesen and Barker, 1995, Woodward and Carnine, 1993). Such efforts have made it possible for students with learning disabilities (LD) to gain access to technology which assists their learning in various subject areas such as reading, mathematics, social studies, and science (Woodward & Carnine, 1993).

In mathematics, such technology has been advocated as a potential tool for students with LD to foster their successful learning (Lin et al., 1994, Okolo, 1992a, Robinson et al., 1989). Because of the comprehensive and abstract natures of mathematics, students with LD require a sufficient number of fast-paced practices, modeling with representative examples, and immediate feedback to learn and understand mathematics (Fuchs et al., 2008, Swanson et al., 1999). Such vital instructional components can be effectively delivered by technology (Anderson-Inman, Knox-Quinn, & Horney, 1996). Also, with technology, mathematics instruction can be individualized and adapted for students with LD to meet their special learning characteristics (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), 2000). Given these assets, a new trend of emphasizing technology as one of the critical mathematics instructional features for students with LD has been created in the field of special education (Hasselbring et al., 1988, Swanson et al., 1999, Symington and Stranger, 2000).

As a result of this trend, a large body of research involving computer-assisted instruction (CAI), defined as the use of a computer to provide instructional content, in mathematics for students with LD has emerged and proved CAI’s effectiveness in teaching mathematics to these students (Adydin, 2005, Gleason et al., 1990, Lewis, 1998). For example, several group-design CAI studies (Moore, 1988, Trifiletti et al., 1984, Watkins and Webb, 1981) focusing on CAI versus teacher-directed instruction (TDI) found that the students in the CAI group outperformed their counterparts in the TDI group. Similarly, two single-subject design CAI studies (Howell et al., 1987, Wilson et al., 1996) focusing CAI versus TDI reported that the student(s) with LD showed achievement gains during the CAI intervention period only. These CAI studies successfully demonstrated that CAI was an effective method of improving the mathematical skills of students with LD. These studies, however, did not fully describe the CAI programs’ design features, which were the key to facilitating students’ mathematical learning (Seo & Bryant, 2009). The importance of the design features of CAI programs has been emphasized in a review of media research by Clark (1983) who claimed that the instructional principles and features embedded in CAI programs, rather than a CAI program itself, are the critical factors most closely related to students’ positive academic outcomes. In response to Clark’s argument, several researchers conducted CAI studies focusing on the effects of the instructional features (e.g., cognitive strategy or mnemonic strategy) embedded in CAI programs on the mathematical performance of students with LD and argued that these instructional features helped create successful mathematical learning outcomes for these students (Irish, 2002, Okolo, 1992b, Shiah et al., 1994).

In line with these CAI studies in mathematics for students with LD, the critical instructional features of CAI programs for students with LD have been emphasized, but the orthogonal technical issue regarding how to effectively deliver such instructional features has not been fully addressed. In other words, a good user interface scheme for delivering such instructional features effectively via the interaction between CAI programs and students with LD has not been explored. In general, a well-designed user interface plays a crucial role in delivering the content, maintaining users’ attention and interest in the content, and increasing users’ interaction with CAI programs (Cho et al., 2009, Hinostroza and Mellar, 2001). Such interaction with CAI programs can cause users to actively participate in the learning process, comprehend instruction, and, finally, improve their learning outcomes (Cho et al., 2009, Chou, 2003, Crowther et al., 2004, Hinostroza and Mellar, 2001). Particularly, in the case of mathematics CAI programs, instruction regarding abstract mathematical concepts and relationships can be effectively delivered by using various user interface features (e.g., interactive graphics and virtual simulation), thereby increasing students’ mathematical learning and understanding (Akpinar and Hartley, 1996, Kong, 2008, Pierce et al., 2007, Reimer and Moyer, 2005, Steffe and Olive, 1996). For example, interactive two- and three-dimensional graphics embedded in mathematics CAI programs allow students to visually explore the properties of geometric shapes and help them understand geometric relationships (Ittigson and Zewe, 2003, Steen et al., 2006). Given the importance of the user interface design of CAI programs for students’ mathematical learning, many studies in the field of educational technology have analyzed the critical user interface design features of mathematics CAI programs (Baki and Güveli, 2008, Jonassen et al., 2003, Kong, 2008, Pierce et al., 2007). Because the previous studies targeted normally achieving students who do not have LD or learning difficulties, rather than students with LD, a systematic analysis of the critical user interface design features of mathematics CAI programs for students with LD has been limited. In fact, there is a dearth of studies focusing on the user interface design features of mathematics CAI programs for students with LD based on an in-depth analysis of their mathematical performance and biological characteristics. Therefore, little is known about how the user interface of such CAI programs must be designed for students with LD in order to effectively deliver mathematics instructions and, consequently, improve their mathematical learning.

Given the absence of this information, this study was conducted to (1) identify the critical user interface design features of mathematics CAI programs for students with LD, (2) design and develop a multimedia CAI program, ‘Math Explorer,’ to demonstrate how the identified user interface design features could be practically embedded in mathematics CAI programs for students with LD and (3) conduct usability testing to assess whether Math Explorer was usefully designed in terms of its interface for students with LD.