Consequences of childhood memories: Narcissism, malevolent, and benevolent childhood experiences

Abstract

Background

Previous research has shown that narcissistic personality traits can differentiate in those with childhood abuse and rejection. However, narcissism has not been evaluated in various family systems, with the consideration for negative and positive childhood experiences.

Objective

The following study evaluates differences in narcissism in those who are raised in various childhood environments that sometimes result in adverse long-term outcomes. We examine the extent to which both traumatic and benevolent childhood experiences that manifest from parent-child relationships increase or decrease the likelihood of narcissistic traits.

Participants and setting

Adoptees (N= 71), former foster children (N = 59), and those who were neither adopted nor former foster children (N = 207) were assessed for early maladaptive schemas (EMS), benevolent childhood memories (BCE), and narcissistic personality traits.

Methods

Participants were recruited through Facebook support groups and non-profit organizations specifically created for adult adoptees or former foster children to complete an online survey. Others were recruited from a participant pool at a large, public university in the American Southeast to serve as a comparison group.

Results

Individuals who were fostered or adopted had lower levels of narcissism compared to those who are neither. These differences were partially explained by differences in BCE and EMS, with BCE increasing the likelihood of narcissism and EMS decreasing the likelihood. The impact of EMS became non-significant when controlling for BCE.

Conclusions

Those from less privileged backgrounds are unlikely to develop narcissism as a protective mechanism but are more likely to have maladaptive schemas. Interventions for those from less privileged backgrounds should aim at providing more benevolent childhood experiences to lessen the impact of maladaptive schemas.

Introduction

Individuals with narcissistic traits have an inflated sense of self and believe themselves to be superior in looks, leadership ability, and talent (Grijalva & Zhang, 2016; Jones & Paulhus, 2014). These beliefs often lead to a sense of entitlement with narcissists having higher expectations (e.g., Harvey & Martinko, 2009; Westerman, Bergman, Bergman, & Daly, 2012). While the exact causes of narcissism are unclear, childhood experiences are often considered a contributing factor and may also be a consequence of abusive, neglectful beginnings (e.g., Otway & Vignoles, 2006; Cater, Zeigler-Hill, & Vonk, 2011).

Negative childhood experiences, or malevolent experiences, specifically those that include deprived childhood environments, are associated with narcissism (Otway & Vignoles, 2006; Young, Klosko, & Weishaar, 2003). For example, those high in narcissistic entitlement recalled having strict parents and increased fears of parental separation (Cater et al., 2011). Those who were abused as child report more narcissistic traits (Miller et al., 2010), especially among young girls (Ensink et al., 2017). When children are neglected, abused, or rejected, children may seek out excessive admiration from others, resulting in feelings of grandiosity and interpersonal competitiveness associated with narcissism (Huxley & Bizumic, 2017; Young & Flanagan, 1998).

Early maladaptive schemas (EMS) are pervasive cognitive patterns derived from negative childhood experiences (Young et al., 2003). EMS involve distorted core beliefs and perceptions that are associated with problematic adult relationships (Schmidt, Joiner, Young, & Telch, 1995; Young et al., 2003; Zeigler-Hill, Green, Arnau, Sisemore, & Myers, 2011). There are 18 distinct EMS, each representing a different type of internalized traumatic memory (Young, 2005; Young et al., 2003). Each EMS fits in one of five domains: disconnection and rejection, impaired autonomy/performance, impaired limits, other-directedness, and over-vigilance and inhibition (Young et al., 2003). Several EMS frequently coexist with narcissistic traits, specifically the EMS that can be found in the impaired limits and impaired autonomy/performance categories, with a significant occurrence of EMS in the disconnection and rejection category (Otway & Vignoles, 2006; Young & Flanagan, 1998; Zeigler-Hill et al., 2011).

While those who report negative experiences are at an increased risk of narcissism, environments in which a child is sheltered or overly praised are also at risk. Children who remember their parents as being overindulgent (e.g., Capron, 2004; Horton, Bleau, & Drwecki, 2006), overprotective (Huxley & Bizumic, 2017), or overwhelmingly positive (Otway & Vignoles, 2006) are more likely to report narcissistic traits. Self-reports of overvaluation from parents are also positively correlated with their child’s level of narcissism (Brummelman et al., 2015). Not all positive experiences are harmful as those who report more positive experiences as a child have better mental health (Bethell, Jones, Gombojav, Linkenbach, & Sege, 2019).

Benevolent childhood experiences (BCE) are positive experiences in which one remembers feeling comfortable, safe, and connected with others (Narayan, Rivera, Bernstein, Harris, & Lieberman, 2017). BCE also include having a predictable routine and opportunities to learn and grow at school or from a caregiver. BCE provide a buffer for negative experiences, especially among high-risk populations, where those who report more BCE have lower stress, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms (Merrick, Narayan, DePasquale, & Masten, 2019; Narayan et al., 2017). However, despite the practical relevance of this research in high-risk populations, research thus far has been conducted on community samples, which are less likely to report a history of family trauma (Zeigler-Hill et al., 2011). The present study addressed this by sampling two populations who have a higher risk for EMS and a lower chance of BCE: former foster children and adoptees.

Due to the high frequency of family trauma, former foster children have an increased chance of run-ins with law enforcement, poverty, mental illness, unemployment, and irregular living situations compared to those who are not foster children (Barth, 1990; Reilly, 2003). Adoptees, who have a secure home environment but have lost parents, are more likely to attempt suicide, have a psychiatric disorder, commit a crime, and have more behavioral issues compared to the general population (Hjern, Lindblad, & Vinnerljung, 2002; Juffer & Van Ijzendoorn, 2005; Rosnati, Montirosso, & Barni, 2008). However, the majority of adoptees, specifically international adoptees, are known to be well-adjusted (Juffer & Van Ijzendoorn, 2005). Both adoptees and former foster children were populations of interest because of their risk for EMS and lower BCE. Thus, the present study specifically sampled from populations of adoptees and former foster children in order to fully evaluate the association between EMS, BCE, and narcissism.

The prevalence of EMS should be higher, and BCE lower in those who were foster children or adopted compared to those who were not. Those with BCE will be less likely to develop EMS. Predictions for narcissism are harder as both negative and positive experiences have been associated with narcissism. However, BCE and EMS may be a possible cause as to why narcissism develops in adulthood. This study also includes exploratory analysis to further understand the interconnection and linkages between all of the EMS, BCE, and narcissism.