Smoking and alcohol consumption in relation to risk of thyroid cancer in postmenopausal women
Section snippets
Methods
The Women's Health Initiative (WHI) is a large, multi-center, multi-faceted study designed to advance understanding of the determinants of major chronic diseases in postmenopausal women. It is composed of a Clinical Trial component (CT, N = 68,132) and an Observational Study component (OS, N = 93,676) [18]. The clinical trial component included three randomized controlled intervention studies: hormone therapy, low-fat diet modification and calcium + vitamin D supplementation. Women between the ages
Results
At baseline, compared to non-cases, thyroid cancer cases were significantly younger, taller, had lower alcohol intake, and greater frequency of thyroid nodules and goiter (Table 1). Other factors differed little between the two groups. The distribution of cases by stage was: 76.4% localized, 18.2% regional, 4.2% distant, and 1.2% unknown.
In multivariable analyses, ever having smoked was not associated with risk of thyroid cancer or papillary thyroid cancer (Table 2). Current smokers had a
Discussion
In the present study, ever smokers did not have an altered risk of thyroid cancer. Being a current cigarette smoker was associated with reduced risk of thyroid cancer and papillary thyroid cancer, and having a cumulative exposure of 40 or more pack-years of cigarette smoking was associated with reduced risk of papillary thyroid cancer; however, the numbers of cases among the exposed were small. Having smoked for a shorter duration and having quit smoking ≥30 years before enrollment appeared to
Conflict of interest statement
All authors state that they have no conflicts-of-interest that are pertinent to this work.
Acknowledgments
Short list of WHI investigators
Program Office: (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland) Jacques Rossouw, Shari Ludlam, Dale Burwen, Joan McGowan, Leslie Ford, and Nancy Geller.
Clinical Coordinating Center: (Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA) Garnet Anderson, Ross Prentice, Andrea LaCroix, and Charles Kooperberg.
Investigators and Academic Centers: (Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA) JoAnn E. Manson; (MedStar Health Research
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