Effect of sporting activity practice on susceptibility to motion sickness
Introduction
Motion sickness (MS) is considered to be a normal physiological response to unfamiliar motion patterns, whether real or apparent. Its main signs and symptoms include pallor, cold sweating, headache, epigastric awareness and nausea, which progress in severe cases to recurrent vomiting [29]. On repeated exposure to motion conditions, a process of habituation takes place, reflected in a reduction of symptoms and changes in the vestibulo-ocular reflex [34]. Survey studies suggest that females tend to report greater severity of MS and a higher incidence of vomiting than males [3], [5].
MS is referred to as a neural mismatch, the basic assumption being that situations which provoke MS are characterized by a condition of sensory conflict, in which the signals from the various spatial senses (vestibular, visual and proprioceptive) are unfamiliar or incompatible with one another and, consequently, are at variance with what is expected on the basis of past experience [30], [35]. Another theory considers that MS is due to overstimulation [22]. The amplitudes of the stimuli causing MS are far below the levels needed for response saturation. According to the alternative theory proposed by Riccio and Stoffregen [31], in which postural control is defined as the coordinated stabilisation of all body segments and postural stability as the state in which uncontrolled movements of the perception and action systems are minimised, MS could result from prolonged postural instability.
On the one hand, vision helps to characterize an object's velocity in relation to the observer, but consisting only in a relative appreciation from one to the other requiring other information to define the contribution of each displacement observed. On the other hand, gaze orientation is referenced to the inner ear, solicitation of which generates gaze compensatory responses during head movements. MS is described without vision (blind or blindfolded) [14] and does not occur in case of a complete bilateral areflexia, highlighting the important role of the vestibule in MS susceptibility [2], [19], but can occur by optokinetic stimulation (i.e. IMAX cinema's) in healthy subjects without additional dynamic vestibular stimulation. Other factors can aid or impede MS development, like individual susceptibility, previous experience, visual influences or drugs. The action of motion on the muscle, tendon and joint receptors can intervene at this level [19]. During childhood, vestibular maturation, which could be improved by training, contributes to lower susceptibility to MS. Spatial phobia find in certain types of means of transport a conjunction of factors favouring MS manifestations. Visuo-vestibular conflict is particularly responsible for MS, and vestibular and visual afferences are both involved in balance control [15], [27], [33]. As regards the visual contribution to balance control, field dependent subjects are dependent on this input for improving this function, whereas field independent subjects may be more dependent on vestibular (head) or somatosensory (feet) cues [16]. Moreover, this function, by improving sensory afferences, can be improved by the practice of physical and sporting activities (PSA) [26], [28]. For example, trampoline and some acrobatic PSA develop vestibular input in particular and dance requires mainly visual afferences, whereas the third input involved in balance control, namely proprioception, can be developed by judo, gymnastic and climbing among others.
Therefore, according to a similar neurophysiologic support between MS and balance control, development of neurosensorial afferences through PSA can help in MS management. Thus, by developing the visual, vestibular and proprioceptive inputs by means of PSA practice, subjects could be less susceptible to MS. In this respect, subjects benefiting from an efficient proprioceptive input could be able to better manage the visuo-vestibular conflict responsible for triggering MS symptoms and so be less susceptible to MS. The present survey aimed at assessing the relationships between the susceptibility to MS in adulthood and exposure to PSA, and especially proprioceptive PSA.
Section snippets
Questionnaire
For this investigation, a questionnaire concerning MS susceptibility (MSS) and PSA was constructed. Personal data concerning sex and age were anonymously recorded. The first part, on MS, began with a small text of a few lines explaining in simple terms the nature of MS, its main symptoms and the most frequent types of motion involved. The subjects were asked to report their MSS at the time of the study. Possible answers concerning MSS were: “not at all”, “slightly”, “moderately” or “very much
Results
The characteristics of the subjects are shown in Table 1. The prevalence of MSS was significantly higher in women than in men (21.6% versus 7.8%, P < 0.0001). The percentage of subjects having practised PSA was higher in men than in women for both periods before and after the age of 18 years. BPSA were more practised than proprioceptive ones. It should be noted that 20.3% of men and 32.1% of women did not continue PSA after the age of 18, and there were few subjects who had begun PSA after the
Discussion
The present study aimed at to investigate the relationships between MSS and exposure to PSA practice. It reports a higher prevalence of MSS in women than in men. The main findings of this study were a lower prevalence of MSS in men and women (i) when having practised PSA before the age of 18 and (ii) when having practised PrPSA before the age of 18 compared to having practised BPSA before this age. However, the interpretation of the results needs caution because the choice of PSA during
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