Direct herbivory by biological control agents, and the consequent disruption of plant-nutrient-feedback cycles, combine to reduce the invasiveness of Melaleuca quinquenervia (Myrtaceae)
Introduction
Melaleuca quinquenervia, an evergreen tree native to the coastal wetlands of eastern Australia, successfully colonized most freshwater communities in its introduced range in Florida where historically direct control via insect herbivores was largely absent (Center et al., 2012). Pre-productive stages of this species produce high root densities at multiple depths, independent of resource availability or the presence of competing vegetation (Lopez-Zamora et al., 2004). These root systems supported fast-growing, dense populations of this tree that ultimately formed closed-canopy, monotypic forests with massive aerial seed banks in both low- and high-resource habitats (Serbesoff-King, 2003). Today direct control of M. quinquenervia has been re-established via the intentional introduction of a series of monophagous insect herbivores as part of an integrated pest management program that began in the mid-1990s. Several of these insects are now widely distributed throughout the species introduced range and have been shown to control populations of the exotic tree on a landscape-level (Tipping et al., 2008, Tipping et al., 2009).
Several studies documented how invasions of M. quinquenervia altered plant community structure and nutrient storage and cycling before the introduction of direct controls (Martin et al., 2009, Martin et al., 2010, Martin et al., 2011; and Tipping et al., 2008, Tipping et al., 2009). Little is known, however, about the interaction of direct and indirect forces that promoted the species’ dominance during invasion. In this study, we measured above- and below-ground nutrient transfer, storage, and availability in experiment plots where herbivory from the biological control agents had been suppressed for 5-years. These plots offered a unique opportunity to investigate the mechanisms that promoted populations of M. quinquenervia during the early stages of invasion before the introduction and subsequent suppression provided by the insect herbivores.
Section snippets
Experimental design
The study site was located in southwest Florida as described in Martin et al., 2009. This experiment was established in 2002 as described in Tipping et al., 2009. Briefly, 3-meter × 3-meter experimental plots were established and consisted of even-aged pre-productive M. quinquenervia saplings, half of which were sprayed with water (“unrestricted-herbivory plots”) and half of which were treated with monthly-foliar-applications of an insecticide (hereafter referred to as
Results
Mean values (±S.E.) of standing biomass, annual litterfall, organic layer, and root biomass in the unrestricted-herbivory plots (hereafter, in recording the statistical data, abbreviated as “UR”) and restricted-herbivory plots (abbreviated as “R”) are presented in Fig. 1. The g m−2 total standing biomass (9580 ± 2030 R and 1920 ± 373 UR, t ratio = −5.09, df = 24, P = <0.0001), annual total litterfall biomass (238 ± 11.6 R and 51.5 ± 12.0 UR, t ratio = −7.68, df = 13.2, P = <0.0001), M.
Discussion
Fast-growing, high resource adapted plants may disproportionately benefit from the lack of the direct regulation of herbivory when introduced into new habitats (Blumenthal, 2006). Melaleuca quinquenervia significantly altered ecosystem structure and function in habitats throughout South Florida and, prior to the introduction of the biological control agents, there existed a well-documented positive feedback cycle between fire and M. quinquenervia that promoted the spread of this species into
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Melissa R. Martin: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Visualization, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Philip W. Tipping: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Visualization, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Michelle C. Mack: Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision. K.R. Reddy: Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision, Funding acquisition.
Acknowledgements
We thank E. Pokorny, K. Nimmo, D. Fitzgerald, F.G. Wilson, Y. Wang, A. Bochnak, S. Daroub, and V. Nadal. This work was partially funded by National Science Foundation, USA grant number 0504422, the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, and the Everglades Foundation.
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2020, Current Opinion in Insect ScienceCitation Excerpt :However, because some agents disperse rapidly, keeping control plots free from attack can be difficult [27]. Insecticides or fungicides have been used successfully to this end [8,28•,29], but they also alter the control plot ecosystem by eliminating nontarget insects and/or soil fungi [30] and may have direct effects on the target weed [31]. Exclosure studies and other set design experiments do establish cause and effect relationships and can provide valuable insights into mechanisms of successful weed management and interactions of herbivory with other biotic factors, but they are often limited in duration and spatial scale (one or a few sites) [e.g. 5••,8,32].
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- 1
Present address: United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1400 Independence Avenue SW, Washington, D.C. 20250, United States.
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Present address: Northern Arizona University, Center for Ecosystem Science and Society, P.O. Box 5620, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011, United States.