Bullying in different contexts: Commonalities, differences and the role of theory
Introduction
Bullying has been a focus of research for over 20 years. There has been debate over the definition of the term “bullying”, but most researchers agree that it is an act that is intended to harm, that takes place repeatedly, and with an imbalance of power between the aggressor and target (Farrington, 1993). This is put succinctly by Smith and Sharp (1994, p. 2) and Rigby (2002, p. 74) as a “systematic abuse of power”. However, Olweus (1993) acknowledges that “a single instance of … serious harassment can be regarded as bullying under certain circumstances” (p. 9). We suggest that these “certain circumstances” center on how long after the abusive event the abused person continues to feel coerced, degraded, humiliated, threatened, intimidated, or frightened. Therefore, we take bullying to include physical abuse (e.g., hitting, kicking or punching), verbal abuse (e.g., threatening, mocking, name-calling, or spreading malicious rumors), and social isolation or exclusion (Lagerspetz, Björkqvist, & Peltonen, 1988) in which a person is deliberately ignored.
Much research on bullying has focused on bullying in schools, especially bullying between pupils (Smith et al., 1999). However, the term “bullying” has been applied to research in other settings and relationships and behaviors which meet the definition of “bullying” given above can be described in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Previous reviews have focused on bullying in one particular setting. Here, we review the literature regarding the nature, extent, characteristics, and impact of bullying in schools, between siblings, in children's homes, in prisons, and in the workplace. We examine similarities and differences in bullying within these different contexts; and consider relevant theoretical approaches which may prove helpful in understanding, and ultimately combating, bullying behaviors.
Section snippets
School bullying
Bullying in school has become a topic of international concern over the last 20 years. Starting with research in Scandinavia, Japan, and the United Kingdom (U.K.), there is now active research in most European countries, in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States (U.S.) (Smith et al., 1999).
Sibling bullying
Very few sibling abuse researchers use the term “bullying” although it is often clear that they are referring to bullying as defined above. We suggest two inter-related reasons for this. One reason is that in families, siblings are rarely equal in terms of age, size, and physical or psychological strength; therefore, one sibling has the greater capacity to be the abuser of the other(s). Second, in childhood and adolescence, siblings typically spend much time together, often in the absence of an
Bullying in children's homes
The U.K. residential childcare sector has, over the last three decades, become largely perceived as a “last resort” placement, predominantly for “difficult” adolescents. It is estimated that about 10,000 U.K. children are in some form of residential child welfare setting. Although the number of senior residential staff with professional social work qualifications has increased, and residential staff are now a more experienced group, lack of confidence, leadership and negative stereotypes,
Bullying in prisons
The first published studies into bullying among prisoners appeared in 1996; exploring young offenders (Connell & Farrington, 1996) and adult prisoners (Ireland & Archer, 1996). Interest has steadily increased since then with seven studies published between 1996 and 1998, and 24 between 1999 and 2006. These have covered the full remit of the prison population i.e., adults, young offenders, juveniles, men and women, although of these juveniles and women remain the least researched (Ireland, 2005a
Workplace bullying
Before the late 1980s, research into workplace bullying tended to be anecdotal and it was not until the pioneering research of Leymann that bullying became more systematically studied (Zapf & Einarsen, 2005). Since then research and interest in the topic of workplace bullying has increased rapidly. Empirical investigations in a wide variety of countries have provided data on the prevalence of bullying (e.g., Einarsen and Skogstad, 1996, Hoel et al., 2001, Keashly and Jagatic, 2000), negative
Overview
Bullying is distinct from general aggression in that it is repeated and characterized by an imbalance of power in which the target is in the weaker position. The term “bullying” has commonly been used to describe aggressive behaviors which occur between pupils in schools. However, we argue that behaviors which can be identified as “bullying” occur in a variety of contexts during childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Based on the body of research reviewed in this paper, we conclude that bullying
Conclusions and implications for research and intervention
Behaviors which we can identify as “bullying” occur in a variety of contexts during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. We currently have a good base of research into bullying in a diversity of settings, which has given us a sound description of the phenomenon. However, in order to understand fully the risk factors involved in promoting bullying we need to look to theory. Examination of the characteristics of those who bully or are bullied, and situational factors involved suggest that a
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