Prison-based peer-education schemes
Introduction
Traditionally, within the offender rehabilitation framework, the offenders themselves are seen as passive recipients of ‘treatment’ and are required to adopt the role of patient, client, or student, with the change process resting upon professional staff Cressey, 1965, Kerish, 1975. Yet, offenders themselves represent the largest group of untapped resources in most rehabilitation frameworks, capable of having a powerful and positive influence on fellow offenders (McHugh, 1998). Furthermore, and in line with cognitive dissonance theory and research (Festinger, 1957), when offenders act as agents of change, they increase the likelihood of changing their own opinions and beliefs regarding offending behavior, to be consistent with their new role as model. Thus, such an approach could be seen as the offenders even contributing to their own rehabilitation. Combined with the recent emphasis on innovative program development, peer programs, which provide offenders with an opportunity to function in helping or teaching roles, may be a promising adjunctive intervention.
Over the past half century, the number of prisoners in the United States and Canada, for example, has tripled. During the same period, the number of psychiatric patients housed in institutionalized psychiatric care has dramatically decreased (Ogloff, 2002). It has also been estimated that, for example, 10–15% of Canadian inmates suffer from a major affective disorder Ogloff, 1996, Roesch, 1995, 69% of remanded Australian males suffer from a substance use disorder (Herman, McGorry, Mills, & Singh, 1991), and 2–7% of sentenced English prisoners have psychotic illnesses. This has led some commentators to cynically view prisons as the last bastion of institutionalized care for the mentally ill (Gilligan, 2003), while others note the increasing demands upon forensic services and the unmet need in the prison population (Smith, 2003). It is our hypothesis that for certain populations, the use of a peer-education model may facilitate addressing the gap, in some instances, between the need and service provision. Furthermore, with studies demonstrating that retention in treatment programs is predictive of both recidivism and relapse, and that motivation is predictive of these retention rates within treatment programs and for after-prison care De Leon et al., 2000, Wexler et al., 1990, it is possible that a peer-education adjunct to treatment may, through increased motivation and readiness (Ward, Day, Howells, & Birgden, in press), decrease recidivism.
In general, peer education constitutes an umbrella term covering a range of different approaches including peer training, peer facilitation, peer counseling, peer modeling, or peer helping (Parkin & McKeganey, 2000). Within a correctional setting, peer programs have been commonly described as ‘prisoner listener’ or ‘prisoner befriender’ schemes, encompassing the concepts of peer counseling, education, and modeling HM Prison Service, 2001, McHugh, 1998. Although in explicit definitional terms, each may be distinctly different depending on the purpose of the intervention, all share a similar notion: programs by inmates, for inmates Ehly & Vazquez, 1998, Kerish, 1975. This paper aims to explore first the theoretical underpinnings of peer programs, followed by a review of the currently available empirical research on correctional peer programs. The discussion will then focus on the difficulties of implementing prison-based, peer-led programs, as well as the overall appeal of such programs for both fellow prisoners and the peers themselves. Recommendations on the effective implementation and evaluation of peer programs will then be explicated, highlighting the importance of such innovations in future rehabilitation policies and practices.
Section snippets
Methodology
To review the available studies, a literature search was conducted on PsychInfo using various combinations of the keywords “offend,” “peer,” “program,” “listener,” “evidence,” “educate,” and “self-help.” Following this primary search, secondary references were traced, and experts in the field were canvassed for further studies. Few formalized studies were found, and it became evident that most knowledge was anecdotal in nature. Therefore, a web search was performed and web references will also
Theoretical framework
The theoretical framework for peer programs is predominantly built upon the bedrock of social learning theory (Bandura, 1986), social inoculation theory Duryea, 1983, McGuire, 1968, and differential association theory (Sutherland & Cressey, 1960).
Social learning theory posits that to change behavior, individuals must have the opportunity to observe and practice modeled behavior until they feel confident in performing it effectively Mathie & Ford, 1998, Milburn, 1995, Turner & Shepherd, 1999.
Peer programs in correctional settings
Historically, peer programs have been used within school settings to target issues such as sexual health education Milburn, 1995, Shepherd et al., 1997 and academic learning difficulties (Greenwood et al., 1984); class disruption (Sanders & Glynn, 1977); HIV/AIDS and injecting drug use Broadhead et al., 1995, Crofts & Herkt, 1995, McKay, 2000, Trautmann, 1995; drug and alcohol abuse Black et al., 1998, Klepp et al., 1986; teenage motherhood (De La Rey, 1996); anger management (Presley & Hughes,
Risks of prison-based peer programs
Although most studies to date have demonstrated the value of using prison-based peer counselors to address a range of issues, there may be several risks associated with such programs. First, there is a lack of sound empirical studies that convincingly demonstrate the preference for, and the enhanced effectiveness of, peer education approaches over professionally delivered interventions, with one study suggesting that offenders prefer professional counselors (Cahill, Jessell, & Horne, 1979). In
Appeal of prison-based peer programs
Despite the potential risks involved, peer-led programs can also be advantageous for fellow offenders, peer educators, and the correctional organization itself. For offenders, professional staff are sometimes seen as authority figures attached to the correctional organization; thus, they may feel uncomfortable and suspicious during professional interactions Mathie & Ford, 1998, Robinson, 1994a, Robinson, 1994b. Furthermore, professional interventions are at times perceived to be psychobabble,
Recommendations for effective implementation and evaluation
It appears that the benefits of utilizing offenders in the rehabilitation process far outweighs the associated risks, particularly when complimented by careful planning, implementation, and monitoring processes. Based on British guidelines (HM Prison Service, 2001), the following recommendations are divided into four phases, which may assist in the effective implementation and evaluation of prison-based, peer-led programs.
Conclusion
Although there is a paucity of evidence-based literature highlighting the efficacy of prison-based, peer-led programs, research published to date suggests that such programs are well tolerated, effective, and possibly more cost effective than professionally led programs. Not only have these programs had a positive impact on those utilizing the service, but the peer educators themselves have gained heightened insight into their lives, empowering them to move beyond their criminal lifestyles
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