An experimental study of positive leaders initiating rocket-triggered lightning
Introduction
`Classical' rocket-triggered lightning (St. Privat D'Allier Group, 1985) is initiated by a small rocket towing a grounded wire aloft under a thunderstorm. The rocket-and-wire technique of triggering lightning was pioneered by Newman (1958)and Newman et al. (1967). The key to its success is likely an observation by Brook et al. (1961)that the sufficiently rapid introduction of a grounded conductor into a high-field region might actually initiate the discharge. It is now well-established that this type of lightning normally begins with a positively charged `leader' propagating upward from the tip of the triggering wire toward the electrified cloud. In this paper, the term, `leader,' denotes a highly ionized, conducting, filamentary channel extending into virgin air. The term, `positive streamer,' in contrast, will always refer to the poorly conducting `corona' space-charge waves that have been studied by Dawson and Winn (1965), Phelps and Griffiths (1976), Allen and Ghaffar (1995)and others.
Apparently identical positive leaders have been shown to initiate `altitude'-triggered lightning (Laroche et al., 1989b), which is produced by a similar rocket towing an ungrounded wire aloft. The same phenomenon has also been inferred to begin most strikes to instrumented aircraft (Boulay et al., 1988; Mazur, 1989b) and most `upward-initiated' discharges to towers (Uman, 1987, Chap. 12), and it is surely important in natural lightning as well (Mazur, 1989a). Thus, the classical rocket-and-wire technique offers a unique opportunity to study the physics of a key process in both the artificial initiation of, and the continued development of most forms of, lightning.
Considerable information is available on the phenomenology of rocket-triggered positive leaders, including currents measured at the base of the triggering wires and electric-field changes at the ground produced by these currents (e.g., Laroche et al., 1988; Lalande et al., 1998), and propagation velocities and other interesting optical characteristics (Idone and Orville, 1988; Idone, 1992). From first principles (e.g., Smythe, 1968, Sections 2.19 and 3.11), it is evident that the energy that drives all lightning discharges is extracted from the ambient electrostatic field. Therefore, one would like to know the ambient-field intensity, and its spatial distribution, associated with both unsuccessful and successful triggering attempts. Unfortunately, it is well-known that surface-based measurements can be screened from more intense fields aloft by a layer of corona-produced space charge (e.g., Standler and Winn, 1979). There are few in situ measurements aloft from which to determine the necessary or sufficient conditions for propagation of positive leaders or with which to explain variations in their behavior. These previous measurements are discussed in Section 2.
This paper describes in detail a major field experiment conducted in Florida during the summer of 1996. The objective was, in effect, to extend experimental work on long laboratory sparks to kilometer length scales. We present an overview of the results, including sample measurements from the various instruments, and offer preliminary conclusions about the triggering conditions. The long-term goal of this work is to gain insight into the conditions for triggering lightning and to determine the response of lightning-scale positive leaders to their ambient energy source.
Section snippets
Previous measurements and theory
The best previous measurements of the ambient-field distribution associated with triggered lightning were reported by Chauzy et al. (1991)and by Soula and Chauzy (1991). They presented recordings of the vertical component of electrostatic field 0 m, 436 m, and 603 m above ground level (AGL) during four triggering attempts in 1989 at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The first three rockets were launched from an isolated platform suspended about 150 m AGL, and they all triggered altitude
Experiment
The experimental approach was to obtain nearly vertical profiles of the ambient electrostatic field beneath thunderstorms, a few seconds prior to triggering attempts using the classical rocket-and-wire technique. By recording the behavior of any discharges that were triggered in the observed field distribution, we hoped not only to place empirical bounds on the triggering conditions but also to validate the existing numerical model of positive-leader propagation and, more generally, to gain a
Data
Table 1 gives an overview of the experimental data that were obtained. The weather afforded opportunities to launch 15 pairs of sounding and triggering rockets during the month of August 1996, and nine lightning flashes were triggered. Of the 15 sounding-rocket launches, no telemetry data were obtained from one, and the early part of another was lost. Of the remaining 13 soundings, two were closely followed by natural lightning, before the triggering rockets reached full altitude, and the
Failed leader
Some insight into the propagation of rocket-triggered positive leaders can be obtained quite simply from these data. For example, the length and average speed of the failed leader in Flight 6 can be estimated by the following kinematic argument. We assume that the quiet period (lack of precursors) in Fig. 7 results from shielding of the triggering rocket from the ambient field by the space charge left behind by this leader. The duration of the quiet period (neglecting the small isolated current
Conclusions
Our primary conclusion is that lightning can be triggered with the rocket-and-wire technique in ambient fields aloft much smaller than previously demonstrated (although this was anticipated by Pierce, 1971, and probably by others). It is clear from the data presented here that fields as low as 13 kV/m are sufficient with a long-enough triggering wire (on the order of 400 m). The potential difference between the grounded wire and the environment can be as small as 3.6 MV when a successful
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express special appreciation to Vince Idone, who provided and installed the video, still, and streak cameras; to Hubert Mercure, who loaned us several fiber optic systems and helped set up the triggering site; and to Andre Eybert-Bérard, who provided the triggering rockets and current shunt. Steve `SUNY' Capuano expertly operated the streak camera, provided forecasting for the experiment, and analyzed the video recordings. Ron Binford's superb engineering and quality
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2022, Electric Power Systems ResearchCitation Excerpt :The bipolar (IPP-B) current pulses that occurred at early times during the IPP, especially those occurring within the first several milliseconds of flash (or IS) start, (see Figs. 3b and 6) can be compared to precursor pulses in rocket-triggered lightning (e.g., [1,5,14]), which are brief current pulses from the tip of the wire that do not initiate stable leader propagation. As seen in Fig. 4, our IPP-B pulses had median background-to-peak risetime and total duration of 1 and 6.1 µs, respectively, and median background-to-peak current of 170 A. Willett et al. [14] examined precursor pulses (see for example their Figure 9 [14] which can be compared to Fig. 6 in this study) in positive leaders initiating rocket-triggered lightning in Florida. Their pulse risetimes and durations (ignoring the oscillations at the end of each pulse) appear to be similar to those for our IPP-B pulses and their peak amplitudes of 10–20 A are roughly an order of magnitude smaller than our median amplitude of 170 A. Willett et al. assumed that such precursor impulses were caused by the sudden development of an extensive corona “fan” of positive streamers preceding the development of short leader segments at the time of positive leader inception.
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