A Protective Process Model of Parent-Child Affective Quality and Child Mastery Effects on Oppositional Behaviors: A Test and Replication

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4405(98)00025-9Get rights and content

Abstract

This article examines a model of the effects of parent-child affective quality and young adolescent sense of mastery on young adolescent oppositional behaviors. In addition to a direct effect of sense of mastery on oppositional behaviors, the model includes direct and indirect effects of parent-child affective quality on those behaviors, as well as across-time effects of oppositional behaviors on affective quality. Because the data were obtained from family competency-building intervention studies, the model controls for family attendance in the intervention. Results from covariance structure modeling, using data from a sample of families participating in an initial intervention study (n = 171), generally supported the hypothesized model. The model was then tested with an independent sample of 361 families. Results from the second sample were consistent with results from the initial model test.

Section snippets

Protective Role of Sense of Mastery

Research has demonstrated that self-esteem perceptions, in general, and sense of mastery or self-efficacy, in particular, are associated with lower levels of problem behaviors (Allen, Leadbeater, & Aber, 1990; Botvin et al., 1993; Brook, Brook, Gordon, Whiteman, & Cohen, 1990; Chung & Elias 1996, Conrad, Flay, & Hill 1992, Emery, McDermott, Holcomb, & Marty 1993, Kandel & Andrews 1987, Kaplan 1980, Leary, Schreindorfer, & Haupt 1995, McGrath & Chassin 1995, Rosenberg, Schooler, & Schoenbach 1989

Protective Effects of Parent-Child Affective Quality

Work by numerous researchers has shown that healthy affectional ties with parents positively affect children’s self-esteem perceptions, including their sense of mastery Barber, Chadwick, & Oerter 1992, Biringen 1990, Cicchetti, Rogosch, Lynch, & Holt 1993, Felson & Zielinski 1989, Fleming & Anderson 1986, Gecas 1971, Gecas, & Schwalbe 1986, Greenberg, Siegel, & Leitch 1983, McCormick & Kennedy 1994, Papini, Sebby, & Clark 1989, Paterson, Pryor, & Field 1995, Werner 1993, Whitbeck et al. 1991.

Controlling for Intervention Attendance Effects

In prior investigation of sequences of intervention effects, measures of the affective quality of the parent-child relationship have been shown to have a significant positive relationship with measures of intervention attendance (Spoth & Redmond, 1996). Because of this finding, an intervention attendance variable was included in the tested model to control for an expected effect of attendance on parent-child affective quality between Time 1 and Time 2. However, it should be noted that an

Overview of the Protective Process Model

The previously summarized literature suggested a model incorporating a combination of across-time and more immediate or concurrent effects on young adolescent oppositional behaviors. It was hypothesized that: (a) Time 1 parent-child affective quality would have a direct negative effect on Time 2 oppositional behaviors; (b) Time 2 parent-child affective quality would have a negative effect on Time 2 oppositional behaviors and a positive effect on Time 2 sense of mastery; (c) Time 2 sense of

Context of the Study

This is one of a series of studies conducted for Project Family, a project designed to conduct multiple phases of single- and multicomponent preventive intervention research—that is, needs assessments, investigation of participant engagement factors, efficacy study, and dissemination of validated interventions Spoth 1997, Spoth in press. This article reports analyses of data from two efficacy studies. The primary objective of an intervention evaluated in these efficacy studies—the Preparing for

Sample

Data for Study 1 were collected as part of a pilot PDFY intervention evaluation study. Families were recruited from six school districts in two rural counties in a Midwestern state that were eligible for special financial assistance through a federally-funded school lunch program. School district eligibility for this financial assistance required having a specified proportion of families within the district that met the income requirements for the school lunch program. Because it was assumed

Study 1 results

The structural equation model incorporating the hypothesized relationships among model variables was estimated using the covariance matrix as input. The model goodness-of-fit indices indicated that the overall fit of the hypothesized model was adequate (χ29 = 15.7, p = .07; GFI = .98; AGFI = .92; CN = 202). Examination of the modification indices suggested that no substantial improvement in fit could be gained by the addition of an additional effect path.

Examination of the individual model

Sample

Data for Study 2 were collected from families of sixth graders as part of a longitudinal evaluation of the PDFY intervention and another family-competency training intervention, the Iowa Strengthening Families Program (ISFP) (Kumpfer, Molgaard, & Spoth, 1996). The ISFP is somewhat more intensive than the PDFY; it is a seven-session program in which children attend all sessions. To maximize comparability with Study 1, the sample used for the analyses reported in this paper included only the

Study 2 results

Generally, Study 2 model fitting results replicated those from Study 1. The only exceptions concerned: (a) the intervention attendance effect on Time 2 parent-child affective quality, which was not statistically significant in Study 2 and (b) the effect of Time 1 oppositional behaviors on Time 2 parent-child affective quality, which was significant in Study 2. Findings concerning all other effects were replicated, including the significant positive effect of Time 1 parent-child affective

Discussion

Results of the analyses generally supported the protective process model examined. Study 2 results were very similar to those from Study 1. Although the hypothesized effects of parent-child affective quality and child sense of mastery on oppositional behaviors were generally supported across the analyses conducted with both samples, some of the specific effect path results warrant further discussion.

The findings were consistent with the reviewed literature indicating that parent-child affective

Conclusions

It is useful to consider the practical implications of this study, while keeping the aforementioned study limitations in mind. At a minimum, study results support the efforts of teachers and other school personnel to evaluate school policies and programs that address the quality of students’ relationships with their parents and, relatedly, parents’ involvement with schools. With positive results from future investigations that address the limitations of the current study, there would be further

Acknowledgements

Work on this study was supported by research grant DA 070 29-01A1 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse and by grant MH 49217-01A1 from the National Institute of Mental Health. The authors gratefully acknowledge the comments and editorial assistance from Heidi Lepper, Jeffrey H. Kahn, Cathy Hockaday, and two anonymous reviewers.

References (76)

  • D.R Offord et al.

    Outcome, prognosis, and risk in a longitudinal follow-up study

    Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

    (1992)
  • J.M Rey et al.

    Quality of perceived parenting in oppositional and conduct disordered adolescents

    Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

    (1990)
  • J.P Allen et al.

    The relationship of adolescents’ expectations and values to delinquency, hard drug use, and unprotected sexual intercourse

    Development & Psychopathology

    (1990)
  • M.S Atkins et al.

    DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorderImplications and guidelines for school mental health teams

    School Psychology Review

    (1996)
  • G.J August et al.

    Hyperactive and aggressive pathwaysEffects of demographic, family, and child characteristics on children’s adaptive functioning

    Journal of Clinical Child Psychology

    (1996)
  • B.K Barber et al.

    Parental behaviors and adolescent self-esteem in the United States and Germany

    Journal of Marriage and the Family

    (1992)
  • E Bernard

    Fostering resiliency in kidsProtective factors in the family, school and community

    (1991)
  • Z Biringen

    Direct observation of maternal sensitivity and dyadic interactions in the homeRelations to maternal thinking

    Developmental Psychology

    (1990)
  • K.A Bollen

    Structural equations with latent variables

    (1989)
  • R.F Catalano et al.

    Modeling the etiology of adolescent substance useA test of the social development model

    Journal of Drug Issues

    (1996)
  • H Chung et al.

    Patterns of adolescent involvement in problem behaviorsRelationship to self-efficacy, social competence, and life events

    American Journal of Community Psychology

    (1996)
  • D Cicchetti et al.

    Resilience in maltreated childrenProcesses leading to adaptive outcome

    Development and Psychopathology

    (1993)
  • Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group

    A developmental and clinical model for the prevention of conduct disorderThe Fast Tract Program. Special issue; Developmental approaches to prevention and intervention

    Development and Psychology

    (1992)
  • R.D Conger

    Iowa Youth and Families Project, Wave A (technical report)

    (1989)
  • K.M Conrad et al.

    Why children start smoking cigarettesPredictors of onset

    British Journal of Addiction

    (1992)
  • T Dix

    The affective organization of parentingAdaptive and maladaptive processes

    Psychological Bulletin

    (1991)
  • J.S Eccles et al.

    Development during adolescenceThe impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents’ experiences in schools and in families

    American Psychologist

    (1993)
  • E.M Emery et al.

    The relationship between youth substance use and area-specific self-esteem

    Journal of School Health

    (1993)
  • R.B Felson et al.

    Children’s self-esteem and parental support

    Journal of Marriage and the Family

    (1989)
  • W.M Fleming et al.

    Individuation from the family of origin and personal adjustment in late adolescence

    Journal of Marital and Family Therapy

    (1986)
  • V Gecas

    Parental behavior and dimensions of adolescent self-evaluation

    Sociometry

    (1971)
  • V Gecas et al.

    Parental behavior and adolescent self-esteem

    Journal of Marriage and the Family

    (1986)
  • S.D Gest et al.

    Parenting quality, adversity, and conduct problems in adolescenceTesting process-oriented models of resilience

    Development and Psychopathology

    (1993)
  • M.T Greenberg et al.

    The nature and importance of attachment relationships to parents and peers during adolescence

    Journal of Youth and Adolescence

    (1983)
  • J.D Hawkins et al.

    Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthoodImplications for substance abuse prevention

    Psychological Bulletin

    (1992)
  • J.W Hoelter

    The analysis of covariance structure structuresGoodness-of-fit indices

    Sociological Methods and Research

    (1983)
  • R Jessor

    Successful adolescent development among youth in high-risk settings

    American Psychologist

    (1993)
  • C Johnston

    Parent characteristics and parent-child interactions in families of nonproblem children and ADHD children with higher and lower levels of oppositional-defiant behavior

    Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology

    (1996)
  • K.G Jöreskog et al.

    LISREL VIAnalysis of linear structural relationships by maximum likelihood, instrumental variables, and least squares

    (1986)
  • K.G Jöreskog et al.

    LISREL 7: A guide to the program and applications

    (1989)
  • D.B Kandel et al.

    Processes of adolescent socialization by parents and peers

    International Journal of the Addictions

    (1987)
  • H.B Kaplan

    Deviant behavior in defense of self

    (1980)
  • H Kaplan et al.

    Negative social sanctions, self-rejection, and drug abuse

    Youth & Society

    (1992)
  • H.B Kaplan et al.

    Self-rejection, coping style, and mode of deviant response

    Social Science Quarterly

    (1992)
  • A.E Kazdin

    Adolescent mental health

    American Psychologist

    (1993)
  • H.M Koot et al.

    Prediction of children’s referral to mental health and special education services from earlier adjustment

    Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry

    (1992)
  • R Kosterman et al.

    Preparing for the Drug Free YearsEffects of a preventive parent-training intervention on observed family interactions

    Journal of Community Psychology

    (1997)
  • K.L Kumpfer et al.

    The Strengthening Families Program for the prevention of delinquency and drug use

  • Cited by (15)

    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text