Molecular biomarkers of oxidative stress in aquatic organisms in relation to toxic environmental pollutants
Section snippets
Physiological cellular process and the role of free radicals
Oxygen and nitrogen free radicals are essential in the physiological control of cell function in biological systems and are continuously produced in living cells (Halliwell and Gutteridge, 1999). Basic cellular metabolism in aerobic organisms involves the production of oxygen free radicals and nonradical reactive species (referred to as reactive oxygen species; ROS). There are numerous studies and a large body of experimental evidence showing that living organisms use free radicals and ROS,
Reactive oxygen species, oxidative damage to biomolecules and oxidative stress
Superoxide anion and hydroxyl radicals, which are known to cause oxidative damage to important cellular biomolecules (Sies, 1985), are the two most studied ROS. It is well established that the inadvertent spin-off of superoxide during mitochondrial transfer of electrons to oxygen is a major source of ROS. O2− oxidizes antioxidant vitamins (tocopherols and ascorbate), catecholamines, and thiols and inactivates various enzymes (catalase (CAT) and peroxidases) (Kono and Fridovich, 1982; Blum and
Biomarkers for free radical damage in biological systems
Molecular biomarkers are used to test oxidative damage in biomolecules and various aspects of oxidative stress by free radicals in experimental animals. In addition to using primary and secondary products of free radical damage, biomarkers can monitor the status of various antioxidant defense mechanisms against free radicals. The antioxidant defense system of living organisms can be subdivided into enzymatic antioxidants, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), CAT, and glutathione peroxidase
Pollutants of the aquatic environment and oxidative stress in aquatic organisms
The aquatic environment receives daily substantial amounts of environmental pollutants that have the potential to cause oxidative stress in aquatic organisms through free radical and ROS mechanisms. The uptake of these pollutants by aquatic organisms can occur from sediments, suspended particulate matter with toxic properties, and food sources. Exposure to these contaminants will depend on the particular dietary and ecological lifestyles of the aquatic organisms. Current knowledge and recent
Conclusions
The importance of free radical reactions and ROS in the physiological processes of living organisms and in the mechanisms of toxicity by exposure to a variety of environmental pollutants stimulated an explosive increase of research and applications into the field of oxidative stress caused by ROS. The resulting oxidative damage to lipids, DNA, and proteins and the adverse effects on the antioxidant, enzymatic and nonenzymatic, defense mechanisms of aerobic organisms have been used in recent
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