Elsevier

Applied Ergonomics

Volume 44, Issue 3, May 2013, Pages 435-444
Applied Ergonomics

Simulation-based driver and vehicle crew training: Applications, efficacy and future directions

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2012.10.007Get rights and content

Abstract

Simulation is widely used as a training tool in many domains, and more recently the use of vehicle simulation as a tool for driver and vehicle crew training has become popular (de Winter et al., 2009; Pradhan et al., 2009). This paper presents an overview of how vehicle simulations are currently used to train driving-related procedural and higher-order cognitive skills, and team-based procedural and non-technical teamwork skills for vehicle crews, and evaluates whether there is evidence these training programs are effective. Efficacy was evaluated in terms of whether training achieves learning objectives and whether the attainment of those objectives enhances real world performance on target tasks. It was concluded that while some higher-order cognitive skills training programs have been shown to be effective, in general the adoption of simulation technology has far outstripped the pace of empirical research in this area. The paper concludes with a discussion of the issues that require consideration when developing and evaluating vehicle simulations for training purposes – based not only on what is known from the vehicle domain, but what can be inferred from other domains in which simulation is an established training approach, such as aviation (e.g. Jentsch et al., 2011) and medicine (e.g. McGaghie et al., 2010).

Statement of relevance

Simulation has become a popular tool for driver and vehicle crew training in civilian and military settings. This review considers whether there is evidence that this training method leads to learning and the transfer of skills to real world performance. Evidence from other domains, such as aviation and medicine, is drawn upon to inform the design and evaluation of future vehicle simulation training systems.

Introduction

Simulations of civilian vehicles (Pollatsek et al., 2011), commercial trucks (Blanco et al., 2011) and armoured vehicles and tanks (Oskarsson et al., 2010) are popular tools for driver and vehicle crew training. Proponents of this approach argue that simulations have several advantages over training with a real vehicle in the field. The advantages are: a) control over training conditions (de Winter et al., 2009; Neukum et al., 2003; Pinto et al., 2008), b) the capacity to train in accident-prone scenarios that are too dangerous to train on-road (Espie et al., 2005; Ivancic and Hesketh, 2000; Kaptein et al., 1996; Reed and Green, 1999), c) cost and resource savings (Espie et al., 2005; Kappé and Emmerik, 2005; Pinto et al., 2008), d) reduced time needed to expose learners to a wide-variety of situations (Espie et al., 2005; Kappé et al., 2003; Kaptein et al., 1996) and e) it is possible to objectively measure driving performance (de Winter et al., 2007b, 2009; Kaptein et al., 1996; Neukum et al., 2003).

These claims are often accompanied by an unsupported assumption that simulation-based vehicle training is effective: that it achieves learning objectives and the attainment of those objectives enhances real world performance on target tasks (Rolfe and Caro, 1982). The purpose of this review is to determine whether there is evidence to support this assumption. First, a framework is introduced to describe the key features of simulation training programs. Second, using this framework, current simulation-based driving and vehicle crew training programs are described. Third, the evidence that these training programs are effective is reviewed. Finally, based on these results, and drawing on evidence from the aviation and medical domains to close the gaps in current knowledge, guidelines for future vehicle simulation training system design and evaluation are presented.

Section snippets

Vehicle simulation training programs: description

The first vehicle simulations (or automobile simulators as they were then known) were developed in the early 1960s, and consisted of analogue computers, electronic circuits and primitive display technologies (Allen et al., 2011). Today, the term “vehicle simulation” encompasses a wide range of devices that artificially attempt to represent the real vehicle and the driving environment (de Winter et al., 2007a; Lammers, 2007; Moroney and Lilienthal, 2008). A distinction is often made between

Vehicle simulation: applications

Although the first vehicle simulations were developed to study driver behaviour almost 50 years ago, it has only been in the last decade that they have been used for driver training (Blanco et al., 2011). Their use has spread rapidly as the technology has become cheaper and more widely available. Currently, in the Netherlands alone, over a hundred simulations are dedicated to novice driver training (Kappé and Emmerik, 2005; Kappler, 2008; Pollatsek et al., 2011). Simulations are used

Vehicle simulation: efficacy

This section evaluates the evidence that simulation is an effective tool for training driving-related procedural and higher-order cognitive skills, team-based procedural and non-technical skills. Efficacy was evaluated from two perspectives. First, is there evidence that trainees learn the target skills whilst performing target tasks in the simulation? Second, do these skills transfer to real life situations and improve performance in the actual vehicle?

Discussion and future directions

The potential of simulation as a tool for training drivers, teams and vehicle crews has clearly been recognised, both in civilian and military settings. However, this review indicates that the adoption of simulation technology has far outstripped the pace of empirical research regarding its efficacy. This section discusses the findings and outlines possible directions for simulation-based vehicle training design and evaluation.

There is a reasonable amount of evidence that trainees can learn

Conclusion

The review demonstrates that simulation is currently utilised to train a range of procedural and higher-order cognitive skills relevant to driving, and team-based procedural and non-technical skills. For training procedural driving skills, there is evidence that simulation effectively supports learning, though not enough evidence that this translates to improvements real world driving performance. This is largely because few studies address transfer, and those that do have significant

Acknowledgements

This research was conducted in partnership with staff from DSTO's Land Operations Division. We particularly acknowledge the on-going project management provided by Justin Fidock. Dr Paul Salmon's contribution to this paper was funded through his Australian National Health and Medical Research Council Public Health post-doctoral fellowship.

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