Cheese analogues: a review
Introduction
The growth in the ready meals sector in recent years had been reflected in the increase in the demand for cheese as a food ingredient. Shredded, diced, sliced, and even liquid cheese has been developed to meet the needs of the modern food industry, as convenience foods continue to grow in popularity (Anonymous, 1999). Sales of cheese analogues are closely linked to developments in the convenience food sector (Anonymous, 1989). Cheese analogues are being used increasingly due to their cost-effectiveness, attributable to the simplicity of their manufacture and the replacement of selected milk ingredients by cheaper vegetable products (Eymery & Pangborn, 1988). Cheese analogues extend the supply and lower the cost (Ahmed, Hassan, Salama, & Enb, 1995).
Unfortunately, lack of any detailed statistics makes it impossible to indicate what the total importance of cheese analogues on the world dairy market actually is (Anonymous, 1989). A substantial market has developed in the United States, particularly for industrial food uses where, because of the large quantity processed, the price difference with natural cheese is a decisive factor (Anonymous, 1989; Shaw, 1984). The major application is in compounded or formulated foods manufactured by catering or industrial establishments. The usage level of cheese analogues in the US has remained fairly stable, with the majority of production being mozzarella for use on pizza (McNutt, 1989). In terms of typical usage, the EU market is strikingly similar to the US. However, there are differences in Europe, for example, the cheese analogue market is almost non-existent (Hoogenkamp, 1996). It is a commonly held view in the United States that the introduction of cheese analogues has had rather an additive effect on the overall cheese market rather than the products being used as direct replacements for natural cheese (Shaw, 1984).
Cheese analogues have gained importance in different areas. Firstly, largely because of a tremendous increase in the consumption of pizza pie and the fact that cheese is among the costliest components of a pizza pie, attention has focused on the development of cheese substitutes. In addition, the manufacture of an imitation cheese allows manufacturers greater scope in manipulating constituents toward nutritional, textural, and economic ends. A wide variety of formulated imitation cheeses in which non-fat milk solids and milk fat are replaced by caseinates and vegetable oils are available in the US (Kiely, McConnell, & Kindstedt, 1991). Secondly, due to rapidly increasing prices cheese is being gradually priced out of lower income groups. Making cheese-like products by substituting the higher priced milk-derived ingredients with lower priced ingredients from vegetable sources may be a possible solution for this economic problem (Guirguis, Abdel Baky, El-Neshawy, & El-Shafy, 1985). The cost of producing cheese analogues can be considerably less than that of their natural counterparts. As well as savings in the manufacturing process, raw materials are considerably cheaper than milk (Shaw, 1984). Thirdly, the short supply of milk production in some parts of the world has led to increased interest in the utilisation of substitute ingredients from vegetable sources in producing some dairy analogues (Ahmed et al., 1995; McNutt, 1989). In developing countries where dairy products are expensive and insufficient in quantity, dairy substitutes prepared from legumes provide a nutritious alternative (Santos, Resurreccion, & Garcia, 1989). Fourthly, there is an ever-increasing interest among consumers in food products which contain less total fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, and calories. Such products are useful in controlling body weight and reducing the risk of heart and artery disease (Kong-Chan, Hellyer, & Tafuri, 1991; Mortensen & McCarthy, 1991).
The review is rather phenomenological. The basic relationship between the composition and the functional properties of the analogues types is not fully elaborated. The scientist, who looks for detailed information to understand the physical properties of cheese analogues related to their structure, will have to investigate the relevant references in depth.
Section snippets
Definition
Cheese substitutes and cheese imitates are synonyms. There are two basic types of processes for manufacturing cheese substitutes (Fig. 1). The first uses a liquid “milk”, and involves conventional cheesemaking methods, the products often being referred to as filled cheese. The second type, referred to as cheese analogues, is made by blending various raw materials together using techniques similar to those for processed cheese manufacture. The filled cheese process has certain disadvantages in
Opportunities and threats
Cheese analogues are gaining increasing acceptance with food processors and consumers because of many potential benefits. In the US cheese analogues are generally manufactured to have nutritional equivalence or in some cases to have nutritional advantages over the natural counterpart cheese. Vitamin and mineral contents can be as good as or superior to those of natural cheese through appropriate fortification (Shaw, 1984).
Consumer concerns with ingestion of sodium and saturated fats, have
Protein sources
Calcium caseinates are being widely used in the manufacture of cheese analogues. The water-soluble phosphate groups of the caseinate are located at one end of the protein, while the other end carries non-polar fat-soluble groups. The so-called emulsifier salts operate as calcium-chelating agents which improve the emulsifying properties of caseinate by increasing its hydrosolubility (Eymery & Pangborn, 1988). Functional properties of caseinates in imitation cheese systems have been investigated
Substitution of protein
Different procedures for cheese analogues with less or no protein are described. Zwiercan, Lacourse, and Lenchin (1986) prepared cheese analogues from pre-gelatinised or modified high-amylose starch in partial replacement of caseinate. Mounsey and O’Riordan (1999) manufactured imitation cheese with various levels of pre-gelatinised maize starch. Meltability decreased with increasing levels of starch. A mixture of sodium caseinate, soy protein isolate and corn starch has been used to prepare
Substitution of milk fat
For many years, synthetic cheese products have been made wherein the butterfat traditionally present in full-fat cheese was replaced with an alternative, less expensive, animal or vegetable fat. This practice became widespread in the early 1940s when advances in processing technology surfaced in, for example, the areas of homogenisation and fluid blending. In almost all cases, the synthetic cheeses are offered at lower cost, which was probably the most important single factor in the initial
Food grade ingredients
In the available literature the utilisation of different wholesome food grade ingredients is described (40). Kong-Chan et al. (1991) described the addition of dietary fibre, seasonings, flavouring agents, binding agents, edible gums and hydrocolloids or mixtures thereof in cheese analogues.
In cheese analogues emulsification plays a key role. Buttermilk powder, which includes a substantial phospholipid content, is particularly preferred as emulsifying agent. Other conventional emulsification
Processing regime
From a technological viewpoint the functionality of the final product can be controlled by careful selection of ingredients and by the method of manufacture. Therefore, it is possible to produce analogues, e.g. for shredding or slicing or to satisfy specific requirements for melting or straining (Abou El Nour et al., 1998). Methods for manufacture of cheese analogues vary somewhat, but generally speaking, processed cheese equipment can be utilised, for example, batch cooker/mixer or continuous
Texture and melting properties
The various components of the physical properties can be estimated directly by subjective sensory means, but instrumental measurements are preferable as they are easier to standardise and to reproduce. Instrumental measurements are also potentially more useful as they can generate absolute rheological data provided care is taken to understand the types of forces exerted and the output obtained (Green et al., 1986). The composition of cheese analogues largely determines its texture (
Flavour
The most important negative property of imitation cheese is its flavour, which cannot approach the flavour of real cheese (Anonymous, 1989). However, consumer panelist in one study were not able to distinguish readily between natural and imitation cheese as eaten on pizza (Lindsay, Hargett, & Graf, 1980). Flavour systems are broadly used to increase the resemblance of the imitation cheese to their natural counterparts, some being artificial whereas others might be of natural origin such as the
Distinguishing natural from imitation cheese
Cheese can be identified on the basis of the gross composition when not only dairy ingredients are used (Pellegrino, Resmini, Denoni, & Masotti, 1996). Furosine is a suitable marker of ingredients that contain lactose and are prepared under thermal conditions that initiate early stages of the Maillard reaction (Resmini, Pellegrino, & Masotti, 1993). A highly significant distinction between natural Mozzarella cheese and imitations, even those that did not contain added milk protein, could be
Conclusions and future trends
Analogues have not made much impact on the retail market, and this is thought to be for several reasons. Firstly, the manufacturers are still faced with quality problems. The flavour systems are still insufficiently developed to the point where the analogues could be consumed as “cheese board” products. Consumer demand for imitation cheese as “cheese board” products is limited to a small group (including vegetarians) (Anonymous, 1989). Secondly, there is psychological resistance to change on
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