Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-75dct Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-27T15:47:21.687Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Determinants of fire activity during the last 3500 yr at a wildland—urban interface, Alberta, Canada

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Emma L. Davis ,
Colin J. Courtney Mustaphi ,
Amber Gall ,
Michael F.J. Pisaric ,
Jesse C. Vermaire  and
Katrina A. Moser
Emma L. Davis*
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada Department of Geography, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Colin J. Courtney Mustaphi
Affiliation:
York Institute for Tropical Ecosystems, Environment Department, University of York, York, United Kingdom
Amber Gall
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
Michael F.J. Pisaric
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
Jesse C. Vermaire
Affiliation:
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, and Institute of Environmental Science, Carleton University, Ontario, Canada
Katrina A. Moser
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
*
*Corresponding author. Department of Geography, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada. E-mail addresses:edavis02@uoguelph.ca(E.L. Davis)colin.courtney-mustaphi@york.ac.uk(C.J. Courtney Mustaphi)mpisaric@brocku.ca(M.F.J. Pisaric)jesse.vermaire@carleton.ca(J.C. Vermaire)kmoser@uwo.ca(K.A. Moser)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Long-term records of wildfires and their controlling factors are important sources of information for informing land management practices. Here, dendrochronology and lake sediment analyses are used to develop a 3500-yr fire and vegetation history for a montane forest in Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada. The tree-ring record (AD 1771-2012) indicates that this region historically experienced a mixed-severity fire regime, and that effective fire suppression excluded widespread fire events from the study area during the 20th century. A sediment core collected from Little Trefoil Lake, located near the Jasper townsite, is analyzed for subfossil pollen and macroscopic charcoal (>150 μm). When comparing the tree-ring record to the 3500-yr record of sediment-derived fire events, only high-severity fires are represented in the charcoal record. Comparisons between the charcoal record and historical climate and pollen data indicate that climate and vegetation composition have been important controls on the fire regime for most of the last 3500 yr. Although fire frequency is presently within the historical range of variability, the fire return interval of the last 150 yr is longer than expected given modern climate and vegetation conditions, indicating that humans have become the main control on fire activity around Little Trefoil Lake.

Keywords

Fire historyMacroscopic charcoalDendrochronologyLake sedimentPollen analysisPaleoecologyWildlandeurban interface
Type
Research Article
Information
Quaternary Research , Volume 86 , Issue 3 , November 2016 , pp. 247 - 259
Copyright
Copyright © University of Washington 2016

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, M.A., 2013. Mega-fires, tipping points and ecosystem services: managing forests and woodlands in an uncertain future. Forest Ecology and Management 294, 250–261.Google Scholar
Agee, J.K., 2005. The complex nature of mixed severity fire regimes. Mixed severity fire regimes. Ecology and Management 3, 1–10 Google Scholar
Amoroso, M.M., Daniels, L.D., Bataineh, M., Andison, D.W., 2011. Evidence of mixed-severity fires in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains of west-central Alberta, Canada. Forest Ecology and Management 262, 2240–2249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arno, S.F., 1980. Forest fire history in the northern Rockies. Journal of Forestry 78, 460–465.Google Scholar
Arno, S.F., Parsons, D.J., Keane, R.E., 2000. Mixed-severity fire regimes in the northern Rocky Mountains: consequences of fire exclusion and options for the future. USDA Forest Service Proceedings 5, 225–232.Google Scholar
Arno, S.F., Sneck, K.M., 1977. A Method for Determining Fire History in Coniferous Forests of the Mountain West, pp. 1–27.Google Scholar
Baker, W.L., 2002. Indians and Fire in the Rocky Mountains: the Wilderness Hypothesis Renewed, Fire, Native Peoples, and the Natural Landscape. Island Press, pp. 41–76.Google Scholar
Bamber, R.N., 1982. Sodium hexametaphosphate as an aid in benthic sample sorting. Marine Environmental Research 7, 251–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beaudoin, A.B., King, R.H., 1990. Late Quaternary vegetation history of Wilcox Pass, Jasper National Park, Alberta. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 80, 129–144.Google Scholar
Beierle, B.D., Smith, D.G., Hills, L.V., 2003. Late Quaternary glacial and environmental history of Burstall Pass area, Kananaskis Country, Alberta, Canada. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 35, 391–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, M.W., 1990. Calculation and undertainty analysis of 210Pb dates for PIRLA project lake sediment cores. Journal of Paleolimnology 3, 253–267.Google Scholar
Blaauw, M., Christen, J.A., 2011. Flexible Paleoclimate age-depth models using an autoregressive gamma process. Bayesian Analysis 6, 457–474.Google Scholar
Bowman, D.M.J.S., et al., 2011. The human dimension of fire regimes on Earth. Journal of Biogeography 38, 2223–2236.Google Scholar
Brossier, B., Oris, F., Finsinger, W., Asselin, H., Bergeron, Y., Ali, A.A., 2014. Using tree-ring records to calibrate peak detection in fire reconstructions based on sedimentary charcoal records. The Holocene 24, 635–645.Google Scholar
Brücher, T., Brovkin, V., Kloster, S., Marlon, J.R., Power, M.J., 2014. Comparing modelled fire dynamics with charcoal records for the Holocene. Climate of the Past 10, 811–824.Google Scholar
Canadian Forest Service, 2016. Canadian Wildland Fire Information System.Google Scholar
Carter, V.A., Brunelle, A., Minckley, T.A., Dennison, P.E., Power, M.J., 2013. Regionalization of fire regimes in the Central Rocky Mountains, USA. Quaternary Research 80, 406–416.Google Scholar
Chavardes, R.D., Daniels, L.D., 2016. Altered mixed-severity fire regime has homogenised montane forests of Jasper National Park. International Journal of Wildland Fire 25, 433–444.Google Scholar
Clark, J.S., 1988. Particle motion and the theory of charcoal analysis: source area, transport, deposition, and sampling. Quaternary Research 30, 67–80.Google Scholar
Conedera, M., Tinner, W., Neff, C., Meurer, M., Dickens, A.F., Krebs, P., 2009. Reconstructing past fire regimes: methods, applications, and relevance to fire management and conservation. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 555–576.Google Scholar
Courtney Mustaphi, C.J., Gedalof, Z., Daniels, L.D., Pisaric, M.F.J., 2015. Paleoecological and sedimentological data from: “a classification for macroscopic charcoal morphologies found in Holocene lacustrine sediments”. Open Quaternary 1.Google Scholar
Courtney Mustaphi, C.J., Pisaric, M.F.J., 2013. Varying influence of climate and aspect as controls of montane forest fire regimes during the late Holocene, southeastern British Columbia, Canada. Journal of Biogeography 40, 1983–1996.Google Scholar
Courtney Mustaphi, C.J., Pisaric, M.F.J., 2014. Holocene climate—fire—vegetation interactions at a subalpine watershed in southeastern British Columbia, Canada. Quaternary Research 81, 228–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daniau, A.-L., et al., 2012. Predictability of biomass burning in response to climate changes. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 26, 1–12.Google Scholar
Day, R.J., 1972. Stand structure, succession, and use of southern Alberta’ s Rocky Mountain forest. Ecology 53, 472–478.Google Scholar
Dinh, T., 2014. Influence of Human and Climatic Variability on Historic Wildfire Dynamics in Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada, Geography. University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, p. 98.Google Scholar
Faegri, K., Iversen, J., 1989. Textbook of Pollen Analysis, fourth ed. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Google Scholar
Flannigan, M.D., Stocks, B.J., Turetsky, M., Wotton, M., 2009. Impacts of climate change on fire activity and fire management in the circumboreal forest. Global Change Biology 15, 549–560.Google Scholar
Franklin, J.F., 1974. Abies Mill., fir., Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States, Agricultural Handbook 450. USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC, pp. 168–183.Google Scholar
Froyd, C.A., Willis, K.J., 2008. Emerging issues in biodiversity & conservation management: the need for a palaeoecological perspective. Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 1723–1732.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gall, A., 2016. The Effects of Warming Temperatures, Fire, and Landscape Change on Lake Production in Mountain Lakes, Alberta, Canada. Department of Geography. The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, p. 115.Google Scholar
Gavin, D.G., Brubaker, L.B., Lertzman, K.P., 2003. An 1800-year record of the spatial and temporal distribution of fire from the west coast of Vancouver Island, Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 33, 573–586.Google Scholar
Gavin, D.G., Hu, F.S., Lertzman, K.P., Corbett, P., 2006. Weak climatic control of stand-scale fire history during the Late Holocene. Ecology 87, 1722–1732.Google Scholar
Gedalof, Z., Peterson, D.L., Mantua, N.J., 2005. Atmospheric, climatic, and ecological controls on extreme wildfire years in the Northwestern United States. Ecological Applications 15, 154–174.Google Scholar
Glew, J.R., Smol, J.P., Last, W.M., 2001. Sediment core collection and extrusion. In: Last, W.M., Smol, J.P. (Eds.), Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.Google Scholar
Hallett, D.J., Hills, L.V., 2006. Holocene vegetation dynamics, fire history, lake level and climate change in the Kootenay Valley, southeastern British Columbia, Canada. Journal of Paleolimnology 35, 351–371.Google Scholar
Hallett, D.J., Mathewes, R.W., Walker, R.C., 2003. A 1000-year record of forest fire, drought and lake-level change in southeastern British Columbia, Canada. The Holocene 13, 751–761.Google Scholar
Harrington, C., Brodie, L., DeBell, D.S., Schopmeyer, C.S., 2008. Alnus P. Mill. In: Bonner, F.T., Karrfalt, R.P. (Eds.), USDA FS Agricultural Handbook 727, pp. 232–242.Google Scholar
Heyerdahl, E.K., Lertzman, K., Wong, C.M., 2012. Mixed-severity fire regimes in dry forests of southern interior British Columbia, Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 42, 88–98.Google Scholar
Heyerdahl, E.K., Miller, R.F., Parsons, R.A., 2006. History of fire and Douglas-fir establishment in a savanna and sagebrush—grassland mosaic, southwestern Montana, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 230, 107–118.Google Scholar
Higuera, P.E., 2009. CharAnalysis 0.9: Diagnostic and Analytical Tools for Sediment-charcoal Analysis — User’s Guide, pp. 1–27.Google Scholar
Higuera, P.E., Briles, C.E., Whitlock, C., 2014. Fire-regime complacency and sensitivity to centennial-through millennial-scale climate change in Rocky Mountain subalpine forests, Colorado, USA. Journal of Ecology 1429–1441.Google Scholar
Higuera, P.E., Gavin, D.G., Bartlein, P.J., Hallett, D.J., 2010a. Peak detection in sediment—00;charcoal records: impacts of alternative data analysis methods on fire-history interpretations. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 996–1014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higuera, P.E., Whitlock, C., Gage, J.A., 2010b. Linking tree-ring and sediment-charcoal records to reconstruct fire occurrence and area burned in subalpine forests of Yellowstone National Park, USA. The Holocene 21, 327–341.Google Scholar
Holmes, R.L., 1983. Computer-assisted quality control in tree-ring dating and measurement. Tree-Ring Bulletin 43, 69–78.Google Scholar
Johnson, E.A., Fryer, G.I., 1989. Population dynamics in Lodgepole Pine-Engelmann Spruce forests. Ecology 70, 1335–1345.Google Scholar
Johnson, E.A., Larsen, C.P.S., 1991. Climatically induced change in fire frequency in the southern Canadian Rockies. Ecology 72, 194–201.Google Scholar
Johnstone, J.F., Chapin, F.S., Foote, J., Kemmett, S., Price, K., Viereck, L., 2004. Decadal observations of tree regeneration following fire in boreal forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34, 267–273.Google Scholar
Juggins, S., 2015. rioja: Analysis of Quaternary Science Data, R Package Version (0.9-9).Google Scholar
Keane, R.E., Hessburg, P.F., Landres, P.B., Swanson, F.J., 2009. The use of historical range and variability (HRV) in landscape management. Forest Ecology and Management 258, 1025–1037.Google Scholar
Keane, R.E., Ryan, K.C., Veblen, T.T., Allen, C.D., Logan, J., 2002. Cascading Effects of Fire Exclusion in Rocky Mountain Ecosystems: a Literature Review. USDA Forest Service, p. 24.Google Scholar
Kearney, M.S., Luckman, B.H., 1987. A Mid-Holocene vegetational and climatic record from the subalpine zone of the Maligne Valley, Jasper National Park, Alberta (Canada). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 59, 227–242.Google Scholar
Kelly, R., Higuera, P.E., Barrett, C.M., Hu, F.S., 2011. A signal-to-noise index to quantify the potential for peak detection in sediment—charcoal records. Quaternary Research 75, 11–17.Google Scholar
Kipfmueller, K.F., Baker, W.L., 1998. A comparison of three techniques to date stand-replacing fires in lodgepole pine forests. Forest Ecology and Management 104, 171–177.Google Scholar
Kozak, S.A., 1998. Lightning Strikes in Alberta Thunderstorms: Climatology and Case Studies, Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences. University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, p. 142.Google Scholar
Laird, K.R., Cumming, B.F., Wunsam, S., Rusak, J.A., Oglesby, R.J., Fritz, S.C., Leavitt, P.R., 2003. Lake sediments record large-scale shifts in moisture regimes across the northern prairies of North America during the past two millennia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100, 2483–2488.Google Scholar
Long, C.J., Whitlock, C., Bartlein, P.J., Millspaugh, S.H., 1998. A 9000-year fire history from the Oregon Coast Range, based on a high-resolution charcoal study. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 28, 774–787.Google Scholar
Luckman, B.H., 1986. Reconstruction of Little Ice Age events in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Geographie physique et Quaternaire 40, 17–28 Google Scholar
Luckman, B.H., 2000. The Little Ice Age in the Canadian Rockies. Geomorphology 32, 357–384.Google Scholar
Luckman, B.H., Holdsworth, G., Osborn, G., 1993. Neoglacial fluctuations in the Canadian Rockies. Quaternary Research 39, 144–153 Google Scholar
Luckman, B.H., Kavanagh, T.A., 1998. Documenting the Effects of Recent Climate Change at Treeline in the Canadian Rockies, the Impacts of Climate Variability on Forests. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 121–144.Google Scholar
Luckman, B.H., Kearney, M.S., 1986. Reconstruction of Holocene changes in alpine vegetation and climate in the Maligne Range, Jasper National Park, Alberta. Quaternary Research 26, 244–261.Google Scholar
Luckman, B.H., Wilson, R.J.S., 2005. Summer temperatures in the Canadian Rockies during the last millennium: a revised record. Climate Dynamics 24, 131–144 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacDonald, G.M., 1989. Postglacial palaeoecology of the subalpine forest — grassland ecotone of southwestern Alberta: New insights on vegetation and climate change in the Canadian Rocky Mountains and adjacent foothills. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 73, 155–173 Google Scholar
MacDonald, G.M., Buekens, R.P., Kieser, W.E., 1991. Radiocarbon dating of limnic sediments: a comparative analysis and discussion. Ecology 72, 1150–1155 Google Scholar
MacLaren, I.S., 2007. Culturing Wilderness in Jasper National Park: Studies in Two Centuries of Human History in the Upper Athabasca River Watershed. University of Alberta.Google Scholar
Marcoux, H.M., Daniels, L.D., Gergel, S.E., Da Silva, E., Gedalof, Z., Hessburg, P.F., 2015. Differentiating mixed- and high-severity fire regimes in mixed-conifer forests of the Canadian Cordillera. Forest Ecology and Management 341, 45–58.Google Scholar
Marcoux, H.M., Gergel, S.E., Daniels, L.D., 2013. Mixed-severity fire regimes: how well are they represented by existing fire-regime classification systems? Canadian Journal of Forest Research 43, 658–668.Google Scholar
Marlon, J.R., Bartlein, P.J., Whitlock, C., 2006. Fire-fuel-climate linkages in the northwestern USA during the Holocene. The Holocene 16, 1059–1071 Google Scholar
Marlon, J.R., et al., 2015. Reconstructions of biomass burning from sediment charcoal records to improve data-model comparisons. Biogeosciences Discussions 12, 18571–18623 Google Scholar
McLauchlan, K.K., et al., 2014. Reconstructing disturbances and their biogeochemical consequences over multiple timescales. BioScience 64, 105–116 Google Scholar
Moore, P.D., Webb, J.A., 1978. An Illustrated Guide to Pollen Analysis. Hodder and Stroughton, London.Google Scholar
Morgan, P., Aplet, G.H., Haufler, J.B., Humphries, H.C., Moore, M.M., Wilson, W.D., 1994. Historical range of variability. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 2, 87–111.Google Scholar
Morris, J.L., Brunelle, A., Derose, R.J., Seppa, H., Power, M.J., Carter, V.A., Bares, R., 2013. Using fire regimes to delineate zones in a high-resolution lake sediment record from the western United States. Quaternary Research 79, 24–36.Google Scholar
Nadeau, L.B., Corns, I.G.W., 2002. Post-fire vegetation of the Montane natural sub-region of Jasper National Park. Forest Ecology and Management 163, 165–183.Google Scholar
Parks Canada Agency, 2014. Parks Canada Agency 2014-15 Report on Plans and Priorities. Parks Canada Agency.Google Scholar
Pellatt, M.G., Gedalof, Z., 2014. Environmental change in Garry oak (Quercus gar-ryana) ecosystems: the evolution of an eco-cultural landscape. Biodiversity and Conservation 23, 2053–2067.Google Scholar
Pellatt, M.G., Smith, M.J., Mathewes, R.W., Walker, I.R., Palmer, S.L., 2000. Holocene treeline and climate change in the subalpine zone near Stoyoma Mountain, Cascade Mountains, southwestern British Columbia, Canada. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 32, 73–83.Google Scholar
Peters, M.E., Higuera, P.E., 2007. Quantifying the source area of macroscopic charcoal with a particle dispersal model. Quaternary Research 67, 304–310.Google Scholar
Pisaric, M.F.J., 2002. Long-distance transport of terrestrial plant material by convection resulting from forest fires. Journal of Paleolimnology 28, 349–354.Google Scholar
Pisaric, M.F.J., Holt, C., Szeicz, J.M., Karst, T., Smol, J.P., 2003. Holocene treeline dynamics in the mountains of northeastern British Columbia, Canada, inferred from fossil pollen and stomata. The Holocene 13, 161–173 Google Scholar
Power, M.J., Whitlock, C., Bartlein, P.J., 2011. Postglacial fire, vegetation, and climate history across an elevational gradient in the Northern Rocky Mountains, USA and Canada. Quaternary Science Reviews 30, 2520–2533.Google Scholar
R Core Team, 2015. R: a Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria.Google Scholar
Reimer, P.J., et al., 2013. INTCAL 13 and MARINE 13 Radiocarbon age calibration curbes 0-50,000 years cal Bp. Radiocarbon 55, 1869–1887 Google Scholar
Rhemtulla, J.M., 1999. Eighty Years of Change: the Montane Vegetation of Jasper National Park, Department of Renewable Resources. University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, p. 125.Google Scholar
Rhemtulla, J.M., Hall, R.J., Higgs, E.S., Macdonald, S.E., 2002. Eighty years of change: vegetation in the montane ecoregion of Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 32, 2010–2021.Google Scholar
Rozas, V., 2003. Tree age estimates in Fagus sylvatica and Quercus robur: testing previous and improved methods. Plant Ecology 167, 193–212 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schoennagel, T., Veblen, T.T., Romme, W.H., Sibold, J.S., Cook, E.R., 2005. ENSO and PDO variability affect drought-induced fire occurrence in Rocky Mountain Subapline forests. Ecological Applications 15, 2000–2014.Google Scholar
Seppä, H., Alenius, T., Muukkonen, P., Giesecke, T., Miller, P.A., Ojala, A.E.K., 2009. Calibrated pollen accumulation rates as a basis for quantitative tree biomass reconstructions. The Holocene 19, 209–220.Google Scholar
Smith, D.J., McCarthy, D.P., Colenutt, M.E., 1995. Little Ice Age glacial activity in Peter Lougheed and Elk Lakes provincial parks, Canadian Rocky Mountains. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 32, 579–589.Google Scholar
Stephens, S.L., Agee, J.K., Fule, P.Z., North, M.P., Romme, W.H., Swetnam, T.W., Turner, M.G., 2013. Managing forests and fire in changing climates. Science 342, 41–42.Google Scholar
Stevenson, R.E., Waldron, R.M., Logan, P.A., Dube, D., 1976. Trees and Forests of Jasper National Park. Environment Canada, Forestry Service, p. 16.Google Scholar
Stockmarr, J., 1971. Tablets with spores used in absolute pollen analysis. Pollen et Spores 615–621.Google Scholar
Stokes, M.A., Smiley, T.L., 1968. An Introduction to Tree-ring Dating. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Stringer, P.W., La Roi, G.H., 1970. The douglas-fir forests of Banff and Jasper National Parks, Canada. Canadian Journal of Botany 48, 1703–1726.Google Scholar
Tande, G.D., 1979. Fire history and vegetation pattern of coniferous forests in Jasper National Park, Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany 57, 1912–1934.Google Scholar
Theberge, J.C., Theberge, J.B., Dearden, P., 2015. Protecting Park ecosystems: the application of ecological concepts and active management. In: Dearden, P., Needham, M., Rollins, R. (Eds.), Parks and Protected Areas: Planning and Management, fourth ed. Oxford University Press, Don Mills, Ontario, p. 486.Google Scholar
Tinner, W., Hofstetter, S., Zeugin, F., Conedera, M., Wohlgemuth, T., Zimmermann, L., Zeu, F., Zweifell, R., 2006. Long-distance transport of macroscopic charcoal by an intensive crown fire in the Swiss Alps — implications for fire history reconstruction. The Holocene 16, 287–292.Google Scholar
Vance, R.E., Emerson, D., Habgood, T., 1983. A mid-Holocene record of vegetative change in central Alberta. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 20, 364–376.Google Scholar
Vincent, L.A., Wang, X.L., Milewska, E.J., Wan, H., Yang, F., Swail, V., 2012. A second generation of homogenized Canadian monthly surface air temperature for climate trend analysis. Journal of Geophysical Research 117, 2156–2202.Google Scholar
Wang, X., Thompson, D.K., Marshall, G.A., Tymstra, C., Carr, R., Flannigan, M.D., 2015. Increasing frequency of extreme fire weather in Canada with climate change. Climatic Change 130, 573–586.Google Scholar
Watson, E., Luckman, B.H., 2001. Dendroclimatic reconstruction of precipitation for sites in the southern Canadian Rockies. The Holocene 11, 203–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitlock, C., Larsen, C., 2001. Charcoal as a fire proxy. In: Smol, J.P., Birks, H.J.B. (Eds.), Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 75–97.Google Scholar
Whitlock, C., Skinner, C.N., Bartlein, P.J., Minckley, T.A., Mohr, J.A., 2004. Comparison of charcoal and tree-ring records of recent fires in the eastern Klamath Mountains, California, USA. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34, 2110–2121.Google Scholar
Wright, P., 2015. Managing the National Parks. In: Dearden, P., Rollins, R., Needham, M. (Eds.), Parks and Protected Areas: Planning and Management, fourth ed. Oxford Univesity Press, Don Mills, Ontario, p. 486.Google Scholar