Comparison of soil quality and nutrient budgets between organic and conventional kiwifruit orchards

doi:10.1016/j.agee.2009.02.017

Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment

Volume 132, Issues 1–2, July 2009, Pages 7-15

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2009.02.017 Get rights and content

Abstract

Three long-term (>10 years) systems of kiwifruit production were compared at 36 sites with respect to simple input/output nutrient budgets, extractable soil nutrient levels, soil organic matter status, the size and activity of the soil microbial biomass, earthworm numbers and key soil physical properties. These systems were (i) conventional production of the green-fleshed variety ‘Hayward’ (Green), (ii) organic production of ‘Hayward’ (Organic) and (iii) conventional production of the yellow/gold-fleshed variety ‘Hort 16A’ (Gold). Crop yields and nutrient removals were least for Organic and greatest for Gold, with Green being intermediate. The major nutrients removed in the harvested crop were K and N. Simple input/output nutrient budgets showed that inputs greatly exceeded removals in the harvested crop for all nutrients considered (i.e. N, P, S, K, Mg, Ca) in all three systems, suggesting nutrient inputs could be reduced. Soil organic C and total N content were greater under Organic and Gold than Green whilst extractable P was least under Organic. Soluble C, basal respiration and metabolic quotient were unaffected by production system whilst microbial biomass C and N were greatest under Organic. Within systems, organic C, total N, microbial biomass C and N and mineralisable N were greater between plant rows than below the vine canopies whilst the reverse was the case for metabolic quotient and extractable P. Soil bulk density was least and water content at field capacity and earthworm numbers were greatest under the organic systems. It was concluded that long-term soil fertility can be maintained adequately under organic management and added benefits are increased organic matter content, a larger microbial biomass and improved soil physical condition. Although Organic orchards generally produce less fruit than their Green counterparts, mainly because of fertiliser differences and the absence of synthetic growth regulators, comparatively good returns and surpluses can still be achieved.

Introduction

There is an increasing worldwide requirement for agricultural and horticultural produce not only to meet high standards of quality but also to be produced using environmentally sound practices. To this end, principles of sustainability and resilience have an increasingly important part to play in the drafting of economically viable production protocols. The increasing interest in organic production systems is in response to notions that they are inherently more sustainable (Condron et al., 2000) although evidence for this is scarce. The market premiums that organic produce can earn over their conventional counterparts can ensure economic viability in the face of generally lower overall production (Pacini et al., 2003, Reganold et al., 1993, Springett et al., 1994).

The New Zealand Agriculture Research Group on Sustainability (ARGOS) is seeking to identify pathways to improve sustainability for New Zealand agriculture. To this end, ARGOS is studying and comparing the economic, social and environmental consequences of differing farming systems. An important first question for ARGOS is whether certified organic systems do, in fact, perform differently from their conventional counterparts. Kiwifruit orchards are a small scale, highly intense system which represents an important export industry for New Zealand. Kiwifruit orchards are a woody and complex ecological landscape supporting a highly intensive form of agriculture, which contrast greatly with the other types of broad-acre livestock farming systems that ARGOS is studying. A major part of any comparison of resilience between production systems includes soil quality and whether commercially intensive systems are more damaging to soil's fertility and biological function than an arguably more “natural” organic system.

In this study, three long-term (>10 years) kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.) systems are compared. These are (i) conventional production of the green-fleshed variety, ‘Hayward’, (ii) organic production of ‘Hayward’ and (iii) conventional production of the newer, golden-fleshed kiwifruit variety, ‘Hort 16A’. The comparison included simple input/output nutrient budgets, extractable soil nutrient levels, soil physical properties, size and activity of the soil microbial biomass and earthworm numbers.

Section snippets

Site selection

Thirty-six orchards were selected and evenly divided between three groups: (i) conventionally managed ‘Hayward’ (Actinidia deliciosa), (ii) organically managed ‘Hayward’, and (iii) conventionally managed ‘Hort 16A’ (Actinidia chinensis). Conventional management follows a crop protection programme called “KiwiGreen” prescribed by the export company ZESPRI International Ltd. which provides a single point of entry into markets. It is based on integrated management principles and has emphasis on

Site and soils characterization

The Te Puke region, where 10 of the clusters were based, has average annual air and soil temperatures and rainfall of 14.0 °C, 14.3 °C and 1720 mm, respectively, a little lower than that for the Keri Keri region cluster (15.2 °C, 15.2 °C and 1750 mm, respectively). The Motueka cluster, being considerably further south, has significantly lower average annual air and soil temperatures but also lower annual rainfall (12.5 °C, 11.5 °C and 1420 mm, respectively).

Approximately 90% of soil textures for the

Production, nutrient levels and budgets

Differences in production levels between conventional and organic Hayward kiwifruit systems in this study, and indeed industry-wide, can largely be attributed to the use of hydrogen cyanamide, a plant growth regulator permitted on conventional, but not organic, orchards that significantly improves bud break and flowering. Nutritional differences may also play a part as Organic fruit are generally smaller than Green and Gold fruit, typically by ∼5% (Zespri International, 2008). The Hort 16A

Conclusions

Simple input/output nutrient budgets at the orchards in this study showed that nutrient inputs greatly exceeded removals in the harvested crop for all measured nutrients (i.e. N, P, S, K and Mg) in all three systems. Even taking into account potential fixation/immobilization by soil components, nutrient inputs seem excessive and there is potential to reduce them, especially in conventional systems where inorganic inputs are the norm. The sources used in Organic systems, however, are more slowly

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Dr. Jeff Reid, Andrea Pearson and Duncan Hedderley of the Institute of Crop and Food Research who were instrumental in the setting the original design of the ARGOS program and its statistical analysis (D. Hedderley). We are grateful to the growers who allowed us access to their land and Lesley Hunt of Lincoln University for advice on statistical analysis. The study was funded by the New Zealand Foundation for Research, Science and Technology (FRST) through the Agricultural

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Comparison of soil quality and nutrient budgets between organic and conventional kiwifruit orchards

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Site selection

Site and soils characterization

Production, nutrient levels and budgets

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Methods for Chemical Analysis of Soils

Pairwise comparison of the storage potential of kiwifruit from organic and conventional production systems

N. Z. J. Crop Hort. Sci.

Seasonal accumulation of mineral nutrients by kiwifruit 2

Fruit. New Phytol.

A comparison of soil and environmental quality under organic and conventional farming systems in New Zealand

N. Z. J. Agric. Res.

Proc. of the N.Z. Grass. Ass.

Soils

Estimated annual removal of macronutrients in fruit and prunings from a kiwifruit orchard