Research CommunicationsMajor Carotenoids in Mature human Milk: Longitudinal and Diurnal Patterns
Introduction
Human milk is the preferred source of nourishment for infants because it contains a variety of nutrients not universally found in infant formula or bovine milk. Among the nutrients contained in human milk are carotenoids, which may offer enhanced protection to the infant against infection.1, 2 Beta carotene and some of the other carotenoids are important because they are precursors of vitamin A, (required for normal growth and eyesight as well as resistance to infection) may enhance immune functions, impart antioxidant action, and demonstrate anticancer properties.3, 4, 5 The major carotenoids include beta carotene, alpha carotene, lycopene, beta cryptoxanthin, and lutein/zeaxanthin, all of which are supplied to the infant during breast feeding.6, 7 Beta carotene, comprising approximately 25% of the total carotenoid content in human milk, has the highest vitamin A activity of all known carotenoids and is a potent antioxidant.4, 8, 9
Serum concentrations of carotenoids in breast fed infants increase significantly starting 2 days after birth, whereas carotenoid concentrations in many formula fed infants decrease because of a lack of carotenoid fortification in most infant formulas.[1] A few infant formulas are fortified with beta carotene, thereby increasing the serum beta carotene concentrations in formula-fed infants, although total carotenoid concentrations are higher in breast fed infants.[10] Undernourished children often have serum concentrations of vitamin A and carotenoids much lower than found in well nourished children and often have serious health problems.[11] One could speculate that these children would benefit from a consistent diet rich in carotenoids.
Many previous studies quantitating carotenoids in human milk have used pooled milk from several donors or partial emptying of the breasts.[12] Complete emptying of the breasts is the preferable method for obtaining representative samplings of human milk used for the analysis of lipid-soluble compounds such as carotenoids. The lipid content of human milk is known to vary within a feed and diurnally.13, 14, 15, 16 Neville et al reported that lipid concentrations increased two- to three-fold between fore and hind milk.[14] This within feed variation of lipids was also observed by Hall, who cited that concentrations increased three fold.[13] Hall also reported diurnal variations in lipid concentrations, being lowest at 6 AM and highest at 2 PM with a 2.5-fold increase. It is conceivable that variations in carotenoid levels within a feed and diurnally could be related to the variations in lipid concentrations.
The present study analyzed full breast expressions of mature milk both diurnally and longitudinally. Expressions were collected in 30 mL fractions, which allowed the examination of fore, mid, and hind milk. We examined the validity of analyzing frozen milk samples by comparing carotenoid concentrations in freshly expressed milk and subsequently frozen samples.
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Subjects
Subjects were recruited through a local breast-feeding support group. All participants were healthy adults, either primipara or multipara women. All delivered full-term infants and were lactating for at least 6 weeks. Informed consent was obtained from all participants and procedures followed were in accord with standard collection techniques recommended by breast pump manufacturers and used by many hospitals. Subjects were provided with individualized instructions regarding the study and use
Results and Discussion
This is the only published report examining total major carotenoid concentrations in human milk diurnally and longitudinally, the effects of freezing on carotenoids in fresh milk and concentrations of fore, mid, and hind human milk using modern technology. Reversed-phase HPLC was used to analyze the carotenoids. It allowed the simultaneous quantitation of lutein/zeaxanthin, beta cryptoxanthin, lycopene, alpha carotene, and beta carotene. Because of the short retention time and structural
Conclusion
Our findings demonstrate that total carotenoid concentrations in mature human milk seem to remain fairly constant diurnally and longitudinally. Longitudinal carotenoid concentrations in human milk have not been reported previously. Consequently, this study is significant in that it gives a more complete carotenoid profile of human milk than has been reported previously. Variations in carotenoid concentrations existed within and between the mothers; however, variations between mothers were much
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr. Ken Goldberg for statistical analysis of all the data and Judy Seibert for her expert secretarial assistance.
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2017, Journal of Chromatography ACitation Excerpt :The latter was consistent with that of the lycopene standard (Fig. 3a). However, both peaks seem to be lycopene isomers because that they showed the same spectrum as that of the lycopene standard (data not shown); and that the saponification led to isomerization of lycopene as the same observation was also reported by many studies [36–38]. However, the influence of NaOH on the chromatographic behavior, especially for lycopene, warrants further investigation.
Elevated milk β-carotene and lycopene after carrot and tomato paste supplementation
2015, NutritionCitation Excerpt :Similar to others, we found considerable individual variation in milk carotenoid levels, for both β-carotene and lycopene. Our data set was similar to those previously reported in the literature [15–17]. This interindividual variation is especially important when evaluating the influence of supplementation on milk carotenoid levels, and when considering future recommendations for both optimal nutrition in lactating women and contents of formulas for non-breastfed infants.
Liquid chromatographic method for the determination of lutein in milk and pediatric formulas
2008, International Dairy JournalCitation Excerpt :Human milk reportedly contains several predominant carotenoids including α- and β-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin and lycopene, while bovine milk is dominated by β-carotene and lutein (Calderón et al., 2007; Canfield et al., 2003; Giuliano et al., 1992; Gossage et al., 2002; Jackson et al., 1998; Jewell et al., 2004; Khachik et al., 1997; Liu et al., 1998; Nozière et al., 2006; Schweigert et al., 2000). In the present study, a representative human milk sample yielded lutein levels consistent with the range (0.8–5.7 μg 100 mL−1) of previously reported values (Canfield et al., 2003; Gossage et al., 2002; Jackson et al., 1998; Lietz et al., 2006). Similarly, lutein levels measured in raw and processed consumer bovine milk were also comparable and recent reports (trace – 6.6 μg 100 mL−1) (Calderón et al., 2006; Calderón et al., 2007; Indyk, 1987; Nozière et al., 2006).