Full-length reviewInvertebrate molecular neuroimmune processes
Introduction
A new understanding gained in invertebrates as well as vertebrates, is that substances involved in chemical communication among immunoactive cells are the same, or closely related to those used in the bidirectional exchange of information between the immune system and the neuroendocrine apparatus [3], [4], [33], [68], [85], [86]. Recently, this concept has been expanded to include parasites since they also appear to use the same signal molecules to escape immunodetection [16], [44].
Stefano’s group demonstrates with Deltorphin I, a naturally occurring opioid peptide isolated from amphibian skin, the ability of this substance to modulate both human and invertebrate immunoregulatory activities in a manner quite similar to Met-enkephalin [69]. Its binding and pharmacological studies also have provided evidence for a special subtype of delta opioid receptor δ2, sensitive to naltrindole antagonist on human and invertebrate immune cells [66]. It is also of interest to note that both the invertebrate immunocytes and human granulocytes thus have a δ1 and δ2 receptor [66]. It is clear within the context of this review that host immunocytes having these receptors, and those to be mentioned below, have the potential to respond to similar peptides secreted by the parasite within the host body, thus effectively ‘taking’ over the local communication in their vicinity, without altering global host function.
Opiate alkaloids, e.g., morphine, deserve special attention within the context of this report for several reasons. First, unlike antinociceptive mechanisms, opiate alkaloids and opioid peptides initiate different immunocyte behaviors [66]. Opioid peptides may be generally regarded as immunocyte stimulatory and/or activating ligands whereas morphine, as first noted by Wybran et al. [87], is inhibitory [66]. Secondly, confusion exists in the scientific literature as to the proper terminology for these ligands, opioid alkaloid and opiate peptide. Thirdly a novel opiate alkaloid sensitive and opioid peptide insensitive receptor, namely μ3, has been demonstrated which does not recognize μ-opioid ligands [66]. Lastly, opiate alkaloids appear to be naturally occurring substances found both in mammals and invertebrates [24], [63], [66].
In this regard, the immunosuppressive effect of opiate material expresses itself in a lowering of chemotactic activity, cellular velocity and adherence as well as making active immunocytes inactive (rounded; [66]). These pharmacological effects of morphine on immunocytes are consistent with those actions attributed to opiates reported in the literature [66]. Indeed, it has been surmised that morphinergic transmission may regulate the downregulation of immune activation [66]. Recent studies demonstrate that human granulocytes also contain the μ3 subtype opiate receptor mediating inhibition by morphine and other opiates of cytokine-induced activation and chemotaxis [31]. The discovery of this receptor site mediating opiate effects were first found in an invertebrate and then in man, again demonstrating the value of the comparative approach [66], [73], [74]. This also suggested that these processes might be operational in parasites as well.
Proopiomelanocortin (POMC), i.e., adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) and β-endorphin (βE), is expressed in the cells of the immune system [5], [29], [30], [55], [56], [57]. These observations were then extended to mouse splenocytes [29], [30]. It was only in 1988 that the presence of a mRNA species hybridizing a POMC probe was demonstrated in human B and T lymphocytes [34]. The identity of the peptides produced in lymphocytes with those originally described in the pituitary was definitively shown in a very elegant study by Smith et al. [59]. These authors isolated and microsequenced ACTH produced by LPS-activated mouse splenocytes. The purified peptide was found to be identical to mouse ACTH 1–25. In the same study, reverse transcription of murine lymphocyte RNA, followed by a specific amplification of the POMC mRNA by polymerase chain reaction and sequence analysis, demonstrated the identity of pituitary and lymphocyte POMC mRNAs. This work constitutes the definitive demonstration of the transcription, translation and post-translational processing of POMC in cells of the immune system.
The presence of POMC derived peptides in spreading hemocytes from the snail Planorbarius corneus also has been demonstrated. In this animal, ACTH and βE appear to modulate chemotaxis and phagocytosis by these hemocytes [27], [36], [37]. ACTH-like molecules have also been identified in the marine mollusc M. edulis [59]. In this model, Stefano and co-workers [71], [79] have demonstrated that both α- and β-MSH can inactivate mollusc and insect hemocytes by inhibiting their motility. This was studied by a technique of computer-assisted analysis of cellular conformation. Using the same method, MSH was found to exert the same activity on human granulocytes and monocytes, in agreement with the results of Van Epps and coworkers [49], [68], [71], [82], [83].
Recently, Salzet, Stefano and co-workers in a series of reports [44], [45], [46], [47], [48], [49], [64], have demonstrated that heamatophagous invertebrates (leeches) contain the major opioid peptide precursors, i.e., prodynorphin, POMC and proenkephalin, that contain mammalian-like opioid peptides exhibiting high sequence identity with their mammalian counterparts. These studies corroborated the earlier works of Duvaux-Miret, Capron and co-workers [6], [7], [8], [9], [16], [17], [18], [19], suggesting that parasites may communicate with their hosts via common signaling molecules.
The above data also suggest that neuroimmune interactions emerged early in evolution. In this context, the question arises as to whether cytokines exist in invertebrates. Stefano and co-workers first demonstrated that cytokine-like molecules are synthesized in the nervous and immune systems of invertebrates, and that neuropeptides can regulate their production in both tissues [22], [23], [40], [72]. However, real proof from the molecular point of view has not been yet given in invertebrates. Some indirect evidence (immunological) has recently been provided [36]. Moreover, Hoek et al. [21] have found a new Ig superfamily member in the mollusc Lymnaea stagnalis. This molluscan defense protein is down regulated during parasitosis from Trichobilharzia ocellata. Furthermore, with the discovery in Drosophila of a receptor which is a mammalian homolog of the interleukin-1 type 1 receptor containing a highly conserved region in its cytosolic domain, so-called Toll [35], a novel receptor superfamily present in invertebrates and mammals, the IL-1R/toll-like receptor (TLR) superfamily has been defined.
In summary, there is today growing evidence that the nervous and the immune systems can exchange information, mainly through small molecules, either cytokines or neuropeptides. Furthermore, it appears that some so-called neurotransmitters like neuropeptides can function as endogenous messengers of the immune system, and that they most likely play an important part in the regulation of the various components of the immune response. Parasite infections are a very attractive model in immunology since the immune response fails to kill the parasite but still continues to function. We have been interested in the implications of neuroimmunology in models of host–parasite interactions.
Section snippets
Vascular neuroimmunology
An exciting new finding by Stefano et al. [78] demonstrates that the distribution of opiate receptors has been broadened to several cell types other than the nervous and immune systems. Based on the well-established hypotensive effect of morphine, they hypothesized in 1996 that endothelial cells may represent a target for this opiate substance. Endothelial cells (human arterial and rat microvascular) contain a high-affinity, saturable opiate binding site presumed to mediate the morphine
Neuroimmunology and parasitology
Most parasites share their life cycle between several hosts, these being vertebrates, insects or molluscs. It was therefore of interest to investigate the possible commonalities implied in the concept of neuroimmunology and autoimmunoregulation.
Parasitism implies a very precise equilibrium between the parasite and the various microenvironments where each stage of the life cycle takes place. In each biotope the parasite is able to achieve its survival, growth and/or maturation by using a whole
Conclusion
During the last 2 decades, a number of mammalian-like or identical signal molecules have been identified in different parasite species. The presence of POMC-like derived peptides (such like ACTH, a MSH or bE), morphine-like substances (codeine, morphine sulfate) or endocannabinoids (anandamide, 2 AG) in endo- and ecto-parasites demonstrates that the fields of neuroimmunology and parasitology overlap, highlighting the significance of these signal molecules in autoimmunoregulatory processes since
Acknowledgements
This work was in part supported by the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, FEDER, Conseil Regional Nord-Pas de Calais and the NIH Fogarty INT 00045 grant.
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Membre de l’Institut Universitaire de France.